os- 


REESE    LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY   OF  CAL1FOR 

Received—         _\d%£2CLl/^-+< 

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Accessions  No^-ty..^*^  Shelf  No..:.l2 


PRINCIPLES 


OF 


GREEK  GRAMMAR; 


COMPRISING  THE  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  MOST  APPROVED 
GREEK  GRAMMARS  EXTANT. 


FOR    THE 

USB  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLE* 


BY  REV.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.  D., 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OP  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  ALBANY  ACADEMY  ;  AUTHOR  OP  THE  SERIES 

OF  GRAMMARS,  GREEK,  LATIN',  AND  ENGLISH,  ON  THE  SAME 

PLAN;  A  GREEK  READER,  ETC.  ETC. 


TWENTY- 


IMPROVED. 


NEW  TOEK: 

PRATT,  WOODFORD,  FARMER  &  BRACE, 
NO.  4  CORTLANDT  STREET. 

1854. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  cignt  hundred  and 
fifty-three,  by  PETER  BULLIONS,  in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court 
of  the  United  States  for  the  Northern  District  of  New-York. 


\ 


w 


o 


PREFACE.      r^lf^/jj§ 

THIS  work  has  now  been  so  long  before  the  public,  and  is  so 
well  known,  that  a  detailed  account  of  it  is  unnecessary.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say,  that  the  object  intended  to  be  accomplished  was, 
to  provide  a  comprehensive  manual  of  Greek  Grammar,  adapted 
to  the  use  of  younger  as  well  as  of  more  advanced  students  in 
our  schools  and  colleges. 

Time  and  experience  have  only  strengthened  the  conviction, 
long  entertained,  that  no  system  of  Grammar  will  answer  a  good 
purpose,  for  those  who  pursue  this  study  at  an  early  age,  which 
does  not  present  the  leading  facts  and  principles  in  such  a  way 
as  to  be  easily  committed  to  memory,  and  so  to  be  always  ready 
for  immediate  application  when  necessary.  This  principle  has 
been  steadily  kept  in  view  in  preparing  the  following  work,  as 
well  as  the  others  belonging  to  this  series.  The  leading  and  fun- 
damental principles  have  been  reduced  to  definitions  and  rules, 
brief,  and  easy  to  be  committed  to  memory,  and  are  rendered 
comprehensive  by  being  printed  in  large  type ;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  copious  illustrations  of  these  principles,  and  of  the  ex- 
ceptions and  varieties  of  usage  under  them,  with  every  thing  im- 
portant to  aid  the  advanced  student,  have  been  inserted  in  their 
place  in  smaller  type,  in  the  form  of  Observations  and  Notes, 
all  of  which  are  numbered  for  the  sake  of  easy  reference. 

When  the  leading  parts  of  Grammar  are  first  actually  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  then  constantly  applied  in  the  inflection 
of  words,  and  in  analyzing  their  forms,  they  soon  become  so 
thoroughly  understood  and  fixed  in  the  memory  as  hardly  ever 
to  be  effaced,  and  to  be  always  ready  afterwards  to  account  for 
every  form  which  words,  in  their  numerous  changes,  assume,  and 
to  solve  every  difficulty  caused  by  these  changes  almost  without 
an 'effort  of  thought.  A  student,  though  young,  if  thus  exercised 
but  for  one  year  or  two,  has  an  immense  advantage,  in  the  future 
prosecution  of  his  studies,  over  those  who  have  not  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  their  success  in  a  thorough  course  of  drilling. 

In  the  preface  to  the  first  edition,  a  full  statement  was  given 
of  the  principal  sources  from  which  the  materials  here  collected 
were  drawn,  and  which  need  not  here  be  repeated.  Suffice  it  to 


PREFACE. 


say,  the  author  has  not  hesitated  to  avail  himself  of  every  assist- 
ance within  his  reach,  and  to  gather  from  every  quarter,  espe- 
cially from  the  ample  stores  of  German  Philologists,  whatever 
appeared  suited  to  his  design.  The  labor  of  condensing  and 
arranging,  and,  to  borrow  a  term  from  the  printers'  vocabulary, 
justifying  the  several  parts  with  due  regard  to  harmony  and  pro- 
portion, into  one  compact  whole,  has  been  very  great. 

I  would  beg  leave,  in  this  place,  to  call  the  attention  of  stu- 
dents and  of  teachers,  who  have  not  yet  examined  the  subject,  to 
the  method  of  analyzing  and  forming  the  tenses  of  the  verb 
which  is  here  exhibited.  No  part  of  Greek  Grammar  has  hither- 
to proved  so  puzzling  and  harassing  to  the  pupil  as  this.  For 
want  of  understanding  the  few  simple  principles,  on  which  the 
numerous  changes  in  the  form  of  the  verb  depend,  they  appear 
to  him  intricate,  arbitrary,  and  incomprehensible,  to  such  a  de- 
gree as  to  render  his  prospect  of  fully  mastering  them  almost 
hopeless.  That  this  is  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  method 
of  forming  the  different  tenses  by  deriving  one /tense  from 
another  to  which  it  has  some  real  or, fancied  resemblance/ ap- 
pears to  me  beyond  a  doubt.  As  there  is  no  foundation  in  truth 
tor  this  mode  of  formation,  so  almost  every  writer,  following 
imagination  as  his  guide,  has  proposed  a  different  theory  upon 
the  subject.  One,  for  example,  forms  the  perfect  passive  from  its 
own  future.  Another,  with  equal  ingenuity,  forms  the  future 
from  its  own  perfect,  through  the  medium  of  the  first  aorist  pas- 
sive !  Another  supposes  he  has  simplified  the  whole  matter  by 
deriving  every  tense  in  the  passive  voice  from  its  corresponding 
tense  in  the  active  voice,  by  making  the  simple  and  natural 
change  of  -ipoo  into  -(jpx^cro^tca,  -£co  into  -^//cro^cc«,  -tya  into 
-cp&qv,  -%a  into  -#$^,  -<jp#  into  -[i^ai,  -%a  into  -y^a«,  and  -xcc 
into  -pai,  sometimes  into  -cpai.  Another  still,  in  order  to  arrive, 
for  example,  at  the  first  aorist  passive,  starts  with  the  present 
active,  and,  by  a  succession  of  stages,  arrives  at  the  end  of  his 
journey,  thus,  crr^s'gpco,  earQetya,  sGTQeqa,  eGTQappai,,  earQanrai, 
iGTQdy&rjv  ;  and  when  he  gets  there,  he  finds  he  has  missed 
his  way  after  all,  for  the  first  aorist  of  the  verb  is  not  IcvQcicpdrjv 
but  latQSty&tjv ;  and  to  bring  him  thither,  another  rule  has  to  be 
invented  nearly  as  dark  as  the  road  he  has  already  travelled ; 
viz.,  "  Verbs  which  change  s  of  the  future  into  o  of  the  perfect 
active,  and  into  a  of  the  perfect  passive,  take  s  again  in  the  first 
aorist ;  as,  ecrQaTtrcu,  fiCT^'g^?."  What  can  be  more  perplex- 
ing and  arbitrary  than  such  a  process  ?  It  is  fortunate  for  the 
rising  generation  that  such  a  system  is  beginning  to  pass  awav, 


PREFACE.  V 

and  to  Professor  Theirsch,  of  Germany,  must  we  regard  ourselves 
as  chiefly  indebted  for  the  deliverance.  Throwing  aside  the 
complicated  systems  of  rules  and  exceptions  which  such  theories 
had  rendered  necessary,  he  directs  to  the  more  simple  and  philo- 
sophical method  of  observing  and  stating  the  fact,  that  the  root 
or  stem  runs  unchanged,  or  but  slightly  so,  through  the  whole 
verb ;  and  that  one  part  differs  from-  another  in  form,  only  in  the 
part  prefixed  and  added  to  the  stem,  and  that  in  all  verbs  these 
parts  are  nearly  the  same.  Instead,  therefore,  of  forming  one 
tense  from  another  by  a  tedious  and  complicated  process,  every 
tense  is  formed  at  once  immediately  from  its  root  by  simply  an- 
nexing the  proper  tense-ending,  and  prefixing  the  augment  in  the 
tenses  that  require  it.  Thus,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  instead 
of  the  laborious  and  clumsy  process  above ;  in  order  to  form  the 
1  aor.  passive  of  crr^xjpco,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  annex  the 
aorist  tense-ending  -ttyi>  to  the  root  GtQzy,  prefixing  the  aug- 
ment, and  it  is  done, — you  have  eGTQs'y&qv  at  once ;  and  so  it  is 
with  every  other  tense. 

The  whole  system  of  forming  the  tenses  from  the  root,  accord- 
ing to  this  method,  is  given  in  a  brief  space  (§  93) ;  and  all  its 
modifications,  as  applied  to  the  different  classes  of  mute,  pure, 
and  liquid  verbs,  occupy  only  about  three  pages.  By  forming 
the  tenses  in  this  way,  the  Greek  verb  will  be  found  a  simple, 
regular,  and  beautiful  structure,  as  all  that  belongs  to  the  lan- 
guage is.  And  I  hesitate  not  again  to  say,,  after  many  years' 
further  experience,  and  after  repeated  examinations  of  other  the- 
ories, that  in  my  opinion  "  this  method,  for  beauty,  simplicity,  and 
philosophical  accuracy,  greatly  surpasses  every  other  system  of 
analysis;  and  that  a  more  minute,  familiar,  and  certain  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek  verb  can  be  obtained,  with  much  more  ease, 
and  in  a  shorter  time,  by  studying  it  in  this  way  than  in  any 
other." 


REVISED  EDITION. 

New  plates  for  this  work  having  become  necessary,  the  oppor- 
tunity thus  offered  has  been  embraced,  to  correct  such  errors  and 
inaccuracies  as  had  been  observed, — to  make  such  additions  and 
improvements  as  were  deemed  important,  to  add  to  the  value  and 
completeness  of  the  work,  and  to  render  it  still  more  worthy  of 
the  public  favor.  In  a  few  instances,  the  mode  of  expression  has 
been  slightly  changed,  partly  to  render  it  more  accurate,  and 
partly  to  make  the  Series  of  Grammars  still  more  uniform.  For 


VI  PREFACE. 

this  reason,  also,  a  few  changes  have  been  made  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  matter ;  but  none  of  these  are  of  such  a  nature  or 
extent  as  to  alter  the  character  of  the  book,  or  prevent  its  being 
used  in  the  same  class  with  the  former  editions.  These  changes 
are  chiefly  the  following :  The  general  rules  for  the  accents  have 
been  added  to  §  5-1,  and  the  special  rules  for  each  declension, 
and  for  verbs,  have  been  transferred  from  §  209  to  their  respec- 
tive declensions,  &c.,  in  order  to  be  studied  in  their  place ;  and 
the  rules  for  contractions,  in  the  first  and  second  declensions, 
have  been  transferred  to  these  declensions  respectively ;  so  that 
all  that  belongs  to  each  declension  will  be  found  in  its  proper 
place  under  that  declension.  The  analysis  of  the  terminations 
of  verbs,  formerly  in  the  Appendix,  has  been  added  to  §  9 1 ;  and 
the  table  of  contract  verbs,  also  in  the  Appendix,  has  been  placed 
after  the  Paradigm  of  the  Verb,  pp.  136, 137.  The  sections  on 
Numerals  have  been  placed  before  the  sections  on  the  Compari- 
son of  Adjectives,  in  accordance  with  the  arrangement  in  the 
English  and  the  Latin  Grammar.  And  lastly,  the  section  on 
the  Analysis  of  Sentences  has  been  enlarged,  and  transferred  from 
the  Appendix  to  its  place  immediately  after  the  Syntax.  By 
these  changes  of  arrangement,  the  several  articles  affected  by 
them  have  been  rendered  more  compact  and  complete ;  and  the 
matter  belonging  to  them,  being  brought  together,  is  less  scat- 
tered than  before.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  however,  the  pages 
in  this  edition  do  not  correspond  to  those  in  former  editions ;  and 
also  the  section  numbers  from  §  18  to  §  41  of  the  former  edition, 
and  from  §  51  to  §  59,  have  been  changed,  while  the  matter  in 
each  section  remains  the  same  as  before.  In  order  to  obviate  any 
difficulty  from  this  cause  in  the  way  of  reference,  a  list  of  these 
sections,  indicating  the  change  of  number,  is  given  on  p.  xii. 

Thus  have  the  Grammars  belonging  to  this  series,  viz.,  the 
Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar  of  the  English  Language,  the 
Principles  of  Latin  Grammar,  and  the  Principles  of  Greek  Gram- 
mar, been  thoroughly  revised,  and,  it  is  hoped,  greatly  improved ; 
greater  similarity  and  uniformity  have  been  effected  both  in  ex- 
pression and  arrangement, — the  references  from  one  work  to 
another,  for  explanation  and  comparison,  have  been  greatly  in- 
creased in  number,  and  in  all,  a  running  series  of  numbers,  from 
beginning  to  end,  for  the  convenience  of  reference,  has  been  in- 
troduced. No  labor  or  expense  has  been  spared  to  render  this 
whole  series  of  elementary  books  unique,  practical,  accurate,  and 
comprehensive.  Each  work,  though  connected  with  the  others 
as  a  series,  is  complete  in  itself,  and  being  equally  remote  from 


PREFACE.  VU 

a  meagre  skeleton,  or  outline,  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  diffuse,  ex- 
tended treatise  on  the  other,  is  convenient  in  size,  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  and  carefully  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  instruction. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  grate- 
fully the  favor  with  which  his  works  have  been  received  by 
teachers  and  others,  and  begs  leave  to  assure  them,  that  while  no 
change  will  hereafter  be  made  in  those  now  completed,  no  effort 
will  be  wanting  to  render  those  he  may  yet  publish,  worthy  of 
their  notice. 

NEW-YORK,  July,  1853. 


HINTS  RESPECTING  THE   METHOD   OF  STUDYING  THIS 
•GRAMMAR. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  in  teaching  the  Greek  language,  will 
need  no  instructions  from  me  how  to  study  this,  or  any  other  Grammar 
which  they  may  think  fit  to  use;  but  still  a  few  hints  as  to  the  way  in 
which  it  is  intended  to  be  used  may  not  be  useless  to  the  young  teacher, 
or  to  the  student  who  may  be  under  the  necessity  of  prosecuting  hia 
studies  without  a  teacher. 

It  is  by  no  means  intended  that  the  new  beginner  should  study,  and 
much  less  commit  to  memory,  every  thing  in  the  book.  It  is  presumed 
that  he  comes  to  the  study  of  Greek  with  some  knowledge  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  Latin  Grammars,  and  he  will  therefore  throughout  meet  with 
much  with  which  he  is  already  acquainted,  and  which  will  require  no 
new  labour.  In  general,  definitions  and  rules  printed  in  large  type,  to- 
gether with  the  paradigms  of  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  are 
about  all  that  should  be  attended  to  at  first,  but  these  should  be  com 
mitted  very  accurately  to  memory,  and  repeated  so  often  in  daily  re 
visals,  as  to  become  easy  and  familiar.  If  rais  is  not  done,  the  student'* 
progress  will  be  slow  and  embarrassed  at  every  step,  which  otherwise 
would  be  rapid,  easy,  and  pleasant.  By  youth  of  ordinary  capacity, 
this  will  generally  be  effected  in  the  course  of  six  or  seven  weeks.  It 
is  then  time  to  begin  to  read  easy  sentences,  simply  with  a  view  to  fur- 
nish a  praxis  on  the  rules  and  paradigms  previously  committed.  In  this 
exercise,  every  word  should  be  declined,  and  every  rule  belonging  to  its 
inflection  should  be  repeated,  till  it  can  be  done  not  only  correctly  and 
easily,  but  almost  without  an  effort.  Two  or  three  lines  a  day  will  be 
sufficient  at  first — increasing  the  quantity  no  faster  than  the  pupil  is 
able  thoroughly  to  analyze  every  word.  Simultaneously  with  this,  as  a 
part  of  each  recitation,  the  part  of  the  Gramfhar  already  committed 
should  be  reviewed  repeatedly,  first,  in  shorter,  and  then  in  longer 
portions,  till  the  pupil  is  able  to  run  over  the  whole  in  a  recitation  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  All  this  may  be  effected  in  the  space  of 
three  or  four  months.  Longer  lessons  will  then  be  proper,  and  along 
with  this,  the  study  of  the  Grammar,  taking  up  the  more  important 
parts  of  what  was  omitted  before,  not  to  commit  to  memory,  but  to 
study  them  so  as  to  become  familiar  with  them,  and  be  able  to  refer  to 
them  at  once  when  they  may  be  needed.  By  going  over  the  Gram 


p 
d 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

mar  two  or  three  times,  in  this  manner,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  every 
part  will  become  connected  in  the  mind  with  the  rules  to  which  these 
parts  belong,  so  as  to  be  readily  recalled  by  them. 

There  are  two  or  three  points  to  which  it  is  necessary  for  the  pupil 
to  pay  special  attention.  First,  The  Rules  of  Euphony,  §  6.  To  the  eu- 
hony of  their  -language  the  Greeks  paid  the  greatest  attention.  In  or- 
er to  avoid  the  harsh  sound  which  would  be  the  result  of  certain  con- 
sonants coming  together,  they  often  exchanged  a  consonant  in  certain 
situations  for  another  of  more  pleasing  sound  ;  sometimes  they  changed 
their  order,  sometimes  dropped  one  of  them,  or  inserted  another.  To 
this  is  owing,  in  part,  the  apparent  irregularity  in  the  flection  of  nouns 
and  verbs,  which  has  led  to  form  so  many  perplexing  rules  for  cases  and 
tenses.  The  rules  of  euphony  extend,  not  to  the  flection  of  nouns  only, 
but  to  the  whole  structure  of  the  language  —  to  the  composition  and 
derivation  of  words,  —  and  even  to  the  collocation  of  them  in  a  sen- 
tence. Those  principles  are  few,  thoroughly  systematized,  and  very 
easy  to  be  comprehended.  This  part,  and,  as  fundamental  to  it,  the 
fourth  section,  should  be  thoroughly  mastered  before  proceeding  to  the 
third  declension,  where  these  rules  will  be  needed. 

Another  thing  requiring  special  attention,  and  of  almost  equal  im- 
portance, is,  the  rules  for  contraction.  These  should  be  studied  in  their 
place  after  each  declension,  or  they  may  be  omitted  till  the  first  re- 
visal.  A  perfect  readiness  in  the  rules  of  contraction  renders  a  "para- 
digm of  contract  verbs  entirely  unnecessary.  Still,  as  some  may  wish 
to  have  such  a  paradigm,  it  is  furnished  in  §  100. 

The  last  thing  to  which  I  would  invite  special  attention,  is  the  mode 
of  teaching  the  Greek  verb,  which,  on  account  of  its  numerous  changes, 
and  these  effected  differently  in  different  verbs  by  the  rules  of  euphony, 
according  to  the  consonants  of  which  it  consists,  or  which  concur  in  the 
course  of  inflection,  has  been  regarded  as  so  intricate  and  difficult.  First* 
of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain,  in  every  verb,  the  ROOT,  or  stem,  which, 
in  certain  cases,  undergoes  changes  peculiar  to  itself.  These,  however, 
are  few,  and  under  a  very  few  short  and  plain  rules,  §§  82  —  85.  On 
these  the  pupil  should  be  drilled  till  he  can,  with  perfect  readiness  and 
certainty,  tell  the  root  of  any  regular  verb  as  soon  as  the  verb  is  named  ; 
and  also  its  second  and  third  forms,  when  they  differ  from  the  first. 
This  may  be  the  work  of  one  or  two  days.  To  the  root  is  prefixed  the 
augment  in  certain  tenses,  the  rules  for  which  will  be  found  in  §  88, 
and  require  no  special  notice.  The  next  step  is  to  commit  the  tables  of 
terminations,  §  92,  very  accurately  to  memory,  beginning  at  the  top  of 
each  column  and  proceeding  down  the  page;  this  will  be  much  more 
easily  accomplished  than  to  commit  the  paradigm  of  the  verb,  and  will 
answer  a  better  purpose.  All  that  then  remains  is  to  learn  the  method 
of  forming  each  tense  »by  annexing  the  tense-endings,  §  93,  to  the  pro- 
per root,  according  to  the  rules  for  mute,  pure,  and  liquid  verbs  in 
§§  94,  96,  97.  This  is  an  important  exercise,  and  should  be  persevered 
in,  till  the  utmost  accuracy,  ease,  and  readiness  is  attained. 

The  syntax  of  the  Greek  language  is  a  highly  important  part  of  the 
subject,  and  should  be  diligently  and  carefully  studied  ;  but  this  may  be 
postponed  to  the  second  year,  as  the  rules  of  syntax  common  to  the 
Latin  and  Greek  will  be  sufficient  for  the  earlier  stages.  The  subject  of 
analysis  and  translation,  at  the  end  of  Syntax,  deserves  special  attention, 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Accents 5 

first  declension  ...  21 
second  declension  .  .  26 
third  declension  •  .  29 

verbs 97 

Accusative  of  3d  decL    ...     34 
construction  of      .  250 
governed  by  an  in- 
transitive verb  .  252 

Adjectives,  of 52 

of  the  1st  and  2d 

decL      ....     53 
of  the  1st  and  3d 

decl 55 

of  two  terminations    59 
irregular.     .     .     .     •  1 
comparison  of  .  67,  68 
by  -to/v  -MTTOS      69 
comparison  of  irre- 
gular   ....     70 
defective  .    .     70 
dialects  of      .71 
concord  of,  with  a 

substantive   .     .  206 
other  words  used  as  206 
used  adverbially  .  268 
obs.    on    the   con- 
cord of      ...  206 
pronouns,  construc- 
tion and  use  of.  210 
words  related,  con- 
struction of  .     .  221 
Adverbs,  signification  of     .     .186 
formation  and   deri- 
vation of .     .     .188 
comparison  of .     .     .189 
construction  of     .     .  267 
Adverbial  particles  (insepara- 
ble)       190 

Alphabet 1 

Anacolutha 284 

Analysis 294 


Apostrophe 8 

Apposition 205 

Article 61 

dialects  of 52 

construction  and  use  of  214 
as  a  demonstrative  pro- 
noun   52,  76 

as  a  relative  and  per- 
sonal pronoun  52,  78,  118 

Augment,  of 106 

rules  for 107 

place  of,  in  compound 

words 109 

observations  on    .     .  109 
Auxiliary  verbs 95 

CfiDsural  pause 312 

Case,  of 19 

Characteristic  of  the  verb,  of .     99 

Circumstances,  construction  of  259 

of  cause  or  origin  .  '260 

of  limitation     .     .  261 

of  cause,   manner, 

and  instrument .  263 
of  place    ....  264 
of  time     ....  265 
of  measure  .     .     .  265 
of  price    ....  266 
of  exclamation  .     .  266 
Comparative    deg.,    construc- 
tion and  use  of 209 

Comparison  of  adjectives  .  67,  68 
general  rule  for  .  68 
in  -io)v  and  -ujtoq  .  69 
irregular.  ...  70 
defective.  ...  70 
dialects  of  .  .  .  71 
government  of .  .  235 

Conjunctions,  of 196 

construction  of .  292 

signit  and  use  of  196 

Consonants,  of 4 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Contractions,  of 24 

of  the  1st  decl.    .  25 

of  the  2d  decl.    .  28 

of  the  3d  decl.     .  41 

general  rules  for  41 

exercises  on    .     .  42 

special  rules  for .  43 
examples  of   .   44-47 

Dative  plural,  3d  decl.  of  .  .  36 
construction  of  ...  241 
after  substantives  .  .  241 
governed  by  adjectives  242 
by  verbals  in  -rot;  and 

-T£0£ .243 

by  verbs 244 

by  impersonal  verbs     .  248 

Declension,  general  rules  for  .  20 

first     .....  21 

second      ....  25 

do.  Attic  form  of  27 

third   .....  29 

gen.  of.     .     .     .  31 

do.  of  adj.    .     .  33 

accusative  of      .  34 

vocative  of   .     .  35 

dative  plural  of  36 

dialects  of     .     .  38 

genders  of     .     .  39 

Deponent  verbs 167 

Dialects  of  the  1st  decl. ...  23 

of  the  2d      ....  27 

of  the  3d 38 

of  the  article     ...  52 

of  comparison  ...  71 

of  the  pronoun      .     .  81 

of  the  verb  ....  144 

of  Eipl 162 

Diseresis 9 

Diastole 9 

Digamma 8 

Diphthongs 2 

Enclitics 6 

ETYMOLOGY 15 

Euphony,  rules  of     ....     10 

Figures  affecting  syllables  .  9 
Final  letters  of  the  active  voice  111 
Final  letters  of  the  mid.  and 

pas:*,  voices Ill 

of  verbs  in  fju.     .150 


PAGE 

Gender,  of 18 

Genders  of  the  3d  decl.       .     .     39 

Genitive  of  do 31 

of  adjectives  of  do.    .     33 
obs.  on  construction 

of 228 

governed  by  substan- 
tives     229 

by    adj.   in    the 

neut.  gender  .  231 

by  adjectives     .  232 

by  comp.  degree  235 

by  verbs  .     .     .236 

Goverriment,  of    .     .     .    1     .  227 

Imperative  mood,  syntax  of  .276 

Impersonal  verbs 168 

construction  of  .  248 

Indicative,  construction  of .  .  274 

Infinitive,  construction  of  .  .  280 

as  a  verbal  noun  .  .281 

without  a  subject  .   281 

with  a  subject      .  .283 

used  absolutely    .  .285 

Metre,  of 307 

lambjc 309 

Trochaic 309 

Anapaestic 309 

Dactylic 310 

Choriambic  .  .  .  .310 
Antispastic  .  .  .  .311 
Ionic  a  majore  .  .  .311 
Ionic  a  minore  .  .  .312 
Pseonic 312 

Metres  compound,  of     .     .     .313 
tables  of 314 

Mood  vowels,  of Ill 

Moods,  subjunctive  and  opta- 
tive, construction  of  .     .     .276 

Mutes 4 

New  present,  formation  of     .  170 

Negatives,  of 269 

double  .  .  .  .270 

Nom.  case,  construction  of  .  223 
concord  of 225 

Nouns,  of 16 

accidents  of  .  .  .  .  17 
person  of  .  .  .  ,  17 
gender  of  ....  18 
number  of  ...  18 


INDEX. 


FAOE 

Nouns,  case  of 19 

declension  of      ...  19 
irregular,  of  .     .     .     '48 
defective,  of  .     .     .     .  60 
of    peculiar  significa- 
tion     50 

Number,  of 18 

Numbers,  cardinal    .     .  63 


ordinal      . 
notation  of 
table  of     . 
Numerals,  classes  of . 


64 
65 
66 
62 


OBTIIOORAPHY 


Paradigm  of  the  active  voice  .  180 
of  the  middle  .  .132 
of  the  passive  .  .134 
of  contract  verbs  .  136 
of  verbs  in  -p.*  .  .154 

Participles,  of 96 

declension  of  ...     57 
the  construction  of  .  286 
for  the  infinitive  .     .  288 
with  Aav&dvoj,  Ac.    .  290 
with  flfti^  ylvoftcttj  <tc.  290 
in  the  case  absolute  .  291 
Particles,  conjunctive  and  ad- 
verbial      190,  196 

signification  of     .     .197 

Parts  of  speech 16 

indeclinable,  of  the     16 
Passive  voice,  construction  of 

cases  with 257 

Prepositions,  of 191 

alphabetical  list  of  191 
construction  of     .272 
in  compo- 
sition .  274 

Pronouns,  personal   ....     72 

possessive      ...     74 

construction  of  213 

in  apposition  .  205 

definite     ....     74 

construction  of  210 

reflexive   .     .    .    .     75 

reciprocal      ...     76 

demonstrative    .     .     76 

construction  of  210 

relative     .     .     .     .    77 

concord  of  .     .218 

attraction  of  .  220 


PAGB 
Pronouns,  relat,  other  words 

used  as         .  219 
in  the  sense  of 

other  words   220 

interrogative     .     .     78 

construction  of  213 

indefinite  ....     79 

construction  of  212 

correlative     ...     80 

dialects  of     ...     81 

PROSODY 299 

Punctuation 14 

Root  of  nouns  and  adj.  ...  13 
of  the  verb,  of  .  .  .  .  99 
of  finding  and  changing  99 
second  of  the  .  .  .  .102 

third 

verbs  wanting  2d  and  3d  104 
of  the  tenses      .     .     .     .105 

Sentences,   simple   and    com- 
plex     .     .  ^     .     .     .     203,  294 

Spiritus,  of  the 7 

Superlative  degree,  construc- 
tion and  use  of 209 

Syllables 5 

SYNTAX 203 

parts  of 204 

general  principles  of    .  204 
of  the  verb      ....  274 

Table  of  vowel  sounds        .     .       3 

Tense-root 105 

Tense-signs 105 

Tense-endings 105 

table  of 117 

Tenses,  of 90 

obs.  on  the  use  of    .     .     93 
of  mute  and  pure  verbs, 
formation  of    .     .     .117 
examples  of  .     ..119 
of  liquid  verbs,  forma- 
tion of 125 

formation,  examples  of  126 
of  verbs  in  fit,,  of     .     .149 
formation  of.     .150 
of  verbs  formed  from 

the  primitive  .     159,  160 

terminations  of  .     .     .111 

table  of     .     .     .114 

of  verbs  in  /**    .  149 


Xll 


INDEX. 


Verbs,  of 82 

different  kinds  of  .  .  .  84 

inflection  of 85 

auxiliary  ...  *  .  95 
conjugation  of  ....  98 

analysis  of 99 

root  of 99 

characteristic  of  .  .  .  99 

augment  of 106 

termination  of .  .  .  .111 
mute,  special  rules  for  .  118 
pure,  do.  do.  .122 
liquid,  do.  do.  ."  125 
contract,  of.  .  .  .  .128 
paradigm  of  .  .136 

dialects  of 144 

of  the  2d  conjugation  .  147 

Verbs  in  /**,  tenses  of  .  150,  160 

root  of 149 

final  letters 149 

combination  of      .     .     .150 
paradigm  of     .     .     .     .154 

obs.  on     ......  158 

irreg.  and  defective  160,  169 
inflection  of  .  .  .161 


PAGB 

Verbs,  alphabetical  list  of .     .172 

deponent 167 

impersonal 168 

of  peculiar  signification    168 

concord  of 224 

rules  and  obs.  225 
governing  the  genitive  .  236 
dative  .  244 
accus.  .  250 
ace.  &  gen.  253 
ace.  &  dat.  254 
two  accus.  255 

syntax  of 274 

Voice,  of 85 

active,  table  of      ...  130 
obs.  on  .     .     .     .138 

middle,  of 86 

tenses  of    ...     87 

table  of      ...  132 

passive,  table  of-  .     .     .134 

middle  and  passive,  2d 

conj.,  obs.  on     ...  158 

Vowels,  of 2 

pronunciation  of    .     .       3 
Words 15 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Sections  whose  numbers  have 
been  altered  in  the  present  edition.  The  first  column  contains 
the  number  of  the  sections  in  former  editions ;  the  second  gives 
the  number  of  the  same  sections  in  this  edition.  All  the  other 
sections  are  the  same  as  in  former  editions. 


18  is  now  \ 

}20 

19 

21 

20 

23 

21 

24 

22 

25 

23 

26 

24 

27 

25 

28 

26 

29 

27 

30 

28 

31 

29 

32 

30  is  now  \ 

}33 

31 

39 

32 

40 

33 

41 

34 

18 

35 

19 

36 

22 

37 

34 

38 

35 

39 

36 

40 

37 

41 

38 

§  51  is  now 

§54 

52 

55 

53 

56 

54 

57 

55 

58 

56 

59 

57 

51 

58 

52 

59 

53 

60 

60 

100 

99 

218 

100 

ct, 


l 


<7l, 


-,«f/. 


/  *  — 
ftt 


}f  n  Tn  , 


1  v, 


T;»    rTa  o, 


?°- 


r. 


cr  r, 


£  T.I, 
&%! 


;;, 


r/v  r, 


•r/,.  < 


?•, 
i>( 


•  •„/,    ,;.?;•» 


rt<" 


X?1' 


GREE 


UNIVERSITY 


MAR. 


PAET  I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. — ORTHOGRAPHY  treats  of  letters,  and  the  mode 
of  combining  them  into  syllables  and  words. 

2. — A  LETTER  is  a  mark  or  character  used  to  represent  an  ele- 
mentary sound  of  the  human  voice.  The  Greek  alphabet  con- 
sists of  twenty-four  letters,  namely : 


FORM. 

NAME. 

POWER. 

A  a 

Alpha 

a 

in 

father 

»'£- 

Beta 

b 

in 

bee 

r  y  r  * 

Gamma 

9 

in 

go 

Z/   d 

Delta 

d 

in 

did 

£    € 

Epsilon 

e 

in 

met 

-z  £ 

Zeta        zz  \ 

^-s-dz) 

in 

Nebuchadnezzar 

/y  // 

Eta 

ey 

in 

they 

0  & 

Theta 

th 

in 

thick 

i  t 

Iota 

i 

in 

pin 

K  * 

Kappa, 

*, 

or 

c  hard,  fan,  care 

ji  ^ 

Lambda 

I 

in 

lay,  eel 

M  u> 

Mu 

m 

in 

madam 

N  v 

Nu 

n 

in 

nun 

si 

Xi 

X 

in 

fox 

0  o 

Omikron 

0 

in- 

tyro,  not 

n  n 

Pi 

P 

in 

pea 

P  Q 

Rho 

r 

in 

row 

2  (T,  final  g 

Sigma 

s 

in 

sun,  us 

T  r  1 

Tau 

t 

in 

tea,  not 

T  v 

Upsilon 

u 

in 

brute 

0  (p 

Phi 

ph 

in 

philo 

X  / 

Chi 

ch 

in 

buch  (German) 

W  \fj 

Psi 

ps 

in 

lips 

52    CD 

Omega 

o 

in 

no,  tone 

*  The  letter   y  before  x,  y,  y,  or  £,  is  sounded   like  ng  in  sing , 
thus,  ciyye Ao<j,  ayxow,  pronounced  ang-elos,  ang-kdn. 


VOWELS  AND  DIPHTHONGS.  §  1,  2. 

The  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet  are  either  Vowels  or  Con- 
sonants. 


3.— §  1.  VOWELS. 

1.  A  VOWEL  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  simple  inarticulate 
sound,  and,  in  a  word  or  syllable,  may  be  sounded  alone.     The 
vowels  are  seven ;  viz., 

Two  short,  €,   o. 

Two  long,  q,  co. 

Three  doubtful,  a,   e,   v. 

2.  Ay  i,  v,  are  called  doubtful,  because  they  are  sometimes 
short,  and  sometimes  long.     Thus, 

a  in  narriQ,  is  always  short. 

a  in  7*aog,  is  always  long. 

a  in  Jz$q$,  may  be  either  long  or  short. 

3.  There  are  but  five  distinct  vowel  sounds  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, viz.,  a,  €,  i,  o,  v.     The  q,  and  ca,  are  used  to  express  the 
lengthened  sound  of  e  and  o.     The  vowel  sounds  then  may  be 
thus  expressed : 

Short,  £,    o,  a,  i,  v. 
Long,  ?/,  co,  a,  I,  v. 

4.— §  2.  DIPHTHONGS. 

1.  The  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound  is  called  a  diph- 
thong.    Diphthongs  are  of  two  kinds,  proper  and  improper. 

Note  1.  The  first  vowel  of  a  diphthong  in  Greek,  is  called  the  me- 
pos^t^ve  vowel;  and  the  second,  the  subjunctive  vowel. 

2.  A  Proper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels  are 
sounded.    In  Greek,  the  proper  diphthongs  are  six;   and  are 
formed  from  a,  e,  o,  with  i  or  v  subjoined  :  thus, 

From  a  are  formed  cu  and  av. 
From  6  are  formed  «  and  ev. 
From  o  are  formed  01  and  ov. 

3.  An.  Improper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  only  one  of  the 
vowels  is  sounded.     The  improper  diphthongs  in  Greek  are  also 

ix ;  viz  ca,  ^,  co/,,  commonly  written  a,  v,  q>,  in  which  the  first 
vowel  only  is  sounded ;  and  nv,  CGI;,  ™,  in  which  the  last  vowel 
chiefly  is  sounded,  slightly  modified,  however,  by  an  imperfect 
sound  of  the  first.  These  three  might  very  properly  be  classed 
as  proper  diphthongs. 


§3. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


Note  2.  The  iota  (*)  in  cc,  *j,  w,  from  its  position  under  the  preposi- 
tive vowel,  is  called  iota  subscript.  But  when  this  vowel  is  a  capital, 
the  i  is  written  after  it ;  as,  "At,dr[  =  ctJ^ ;  t  o)  I  ff  o  cp  w  I  =  IM  ffo^w. 

4.  A  vowel,  preceded  by  another  vowel,  with  which  it  does 
not  form  a  diphthong,  is  said  to  be  pure.  Thus,  a  is  pure  in  yg'a 
and  (pitta  ;  og  is  pure  in  Ttofaog,  gadtog,  &c. 


§3.  THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF  VOWELS  AND  DIPH- 
THONGS. 

5 — The  ancie%t  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  vowels  and  diphthongs 
cannot  now  be  determined  with  certainty  in  all  cases.  The  knowledge 
we  have  of  it  is  derived  chiefly  from  Greek  words  that  appear  in  Latin, 
and  Latin  words  that  appear  in  Greek ; — from  imitation  of  natural 
sounds,  as  the  bleating  of  the  sheep,  or  the  barking  of  the  dog; — from 
a  play  upon  words,  and  other  hints  of  a  similar  character. 

6 — If  uniformity  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  Greek,  is  to  be  aimed 
at — and  it  is  certainly  desirable  that  it  should — the  Erasmian  method, 
among  all  others  now  in  use,  seems  entitled  to  preference  as  a  standard, 
not  only  on  account  of  its  simplicity  and  perspicuity,  but  also  as  having 
the  authority  of  the  ancients,  so  far  as  this  can  be  ascertained,  decid- 
edly in  its  favor.  It  is,  moreover,  the  pronunciation  that  generally 
prevails  in  Europe,  and  has  been  adopted  in  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished schools  in  America.  The  whole  system  is  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing 

7. — Table  of  Vowel  and  Diphthongal  Sounds. 


Short  a, 

like  a 

in  Jehovah 

as  povGd 

Long   a, 

like  a 

in  far 

as  cpaQog 

Short  e, 

like  e 

in  met 

as  \iiv 

Long   q, 
Short  I, 

like  ey 
like  i 

in  they 
in  tin 

as  &iJQog 
as  u,iv 

Long   f, 

like  i 

in  machine 

as  Girog 

Short  o, 

like  o 

in  tyro,  not 

as  vovog 

Long   co, 

like  o 

in  go,  tone 

as  lyco,  cpcovfj 

Short  v, 

like  u 

in  brute 

as    1V71TW 

Long   v, 

like  ^ 

in  tune 

as  xiwo^ 

at, 

like  ay 

in  aye 

as  rvtyai 

av, 

like  ow 

in  our,  thou 

as  avzog 

ei, 

like  i 

in  ice 

as  «V,  qptlse 

ev, 

like  eu 

in  feud 

as  (p£vyco 

01, 

like  o^ 

in  oil 

as  oJ^« 

ov, 

like  ou 

in  ragout 

as  ovdei'g 

qv, 

like  ew 

in  few 

as  ijvyofMjV 

cov, 

like  0w 

in  how 

as  ovrog 

VI, 

like  ui 

in  quick,  or 

like  the  English  t00. 

<i  CONSONANTS.  §  4. 

8.— §  4.  CONSONANTS. 

1.  A  CONSONANT  is  a  letter  which  represents  an  articulate 
sound,  and,  in  a  word  or  syllable,  is  never  sounded  alone,  but 
always  in  connection  with  a  vowel  or  diphthong. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes,  semi-vowels,  and  double 
consonants. 

2.  The  mutes  are  nine,  and  are  divided  into  three  classes,  ac- 
cording to  their  strength  ;  viz., 

Smooth,        ny     x,     r.          • 
Middle,         0,     7,     d. 
Aspirate,       <p,     %,     #. 

3.  By  strength  is  meant  the  force  of  voice,  or  of  breathing  re- 
quisite in  pronouncing,  which  is  different  in  each  of  the  classes 
specified, — the  smooth  mutes  requiring  the  least ;  the  aspirates, 
the  greatest ;  and  the  middle,  a  degree  of  force  intermediate  be- 
tween the  other  two. 

4.  Each  smooth  mute  has  its  own  middle  and  its  own  aspi- 
rate ;  and  these  three  are  called  mutes  of  the  same  sound,  or  of 
the  same  order,  because  they  are  pronounced  by  the  same  organ ; 
thus, 

JT-mutes,  or  labials,  n,  {$,  cp. 
K-mutes,  or  palatals,  x,  y,  #. 
T-mutes,  or  dentals,  r,  d,  #. 

Obs.  In  mutes  of  the  same  sound,  one  is  frequently  changed 
for  another. 

5.  The  semi-vowels  are  five,  A,  p,  r,  Q,  $.     Of  these  A,  ^,  v,  Q, 
are  called  liquids,  because  they  readily  unite  with,  or  flow  into, 
the  sound  of  other  consonants. 

6.  The  double  consonants  are  three,  t/j,  £,  f.     They  are  formed 
from  the  three  orders  of  mutes  with  g ;  thus, 

**>  ft  g>»  )  (  y,  1  (  ps. 

x>  7'  />     f    with  S  makes    <   I*    /    equivalent  to   1   x. 
r,  d,  £,    )  (   £  J  (   z. 

7.  In  the  declension  of  nouns  and  verbs,  when  a  #-mute,  or  a 
x-mute,  would  be  followed  by  £,  the  double  consonant  T/J  or  £  is 
substituted  for  the  two  ;  thus,  instead  of  J^Qa^at  or  nhsxGG),  must 
be  written  J^Qatyi,  Tifa'^co,  &c.     But  a  r-mute,  coming  before  £, 
must  be  rejected ;  thus,  for  avvraco  must  be  written  UVVGW,  &c. 
44-8. 


§  5.  SYLLABLES.  6 

8.  In  like  manner  a  double  consonant  may  be  resolved  into 
the  mute  from  which  it  is  formed,  and  g  ;  thus, 

i/>  may  be  resolved  into  Tig,  fig,  or  cpg. 
£  into  X£,  /?,    or  yg. 

f  into  rg,  #£,    or  &g. 

This  is  done  when,  in  the  declension  £f  nouns  and  verbs,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  separate  the  g  from  the  mute  with  which  it 
is  combined ;  thus,  XaikaTp,  by  dropping  the  g  becomes 
becomes  xo^ax ;  and  so  of  other  combinations. 


§  5.  SYLLABLES. 

9. — A  SYLLABLE  is  a  distinct  sound  forming  the  whole  of  a 
word,  or  so  much  of  it  as  can  be  sounded  at  once. 

Every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  distinct  vowel 
sounds. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  Dissyllable. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  Trissyllable. 

A  word  of  many  syllables  is  called  a  Polysyllable. 

10. — In  a  word  of  many  syllables,  the  last  is  called  the  final 
syllable ;  the  one  next  the  last  is  called  the  penult,  and  the  sylla- 
ble preceding  that,  is  called  the  antepenult. 

To  syllables  belong  certain  marks  and  characters  :  these  are — 

1.  ACCENTS. 

11. — The  accents  in  Greek  are  three ;  viz.,  the 
acute  ('),  the  grave  (x),  and  the  circumflex  ("). 

12. — Accents  are  supposed  to  have  been  used  to  indicate  the  tone  of 
the  accented  syllable — the  acute  being  used  to  mark  an  elevation  of 
tone,  the  grave  a  depression,  and  the  circumflex,  the  union  of  both. 

GENERAL    RULES. 

13. — In  diphthongs  the  accent  stands  always  on  the  subjunctive 
vowel ;  as,  nst&dt^  TOVTO  ;  but  on  the  prepositive  of  the  diph- 
thongs a,  77,  cp  ;  as,  ^idqg  =  adqg. 

14. — The  acute  accent  may  stand  on  any  one  of  the  three  last 
syllables  of  a  word  ;  but  on  the  antepenult,  only  when  the  final 
syllable  is  short. 

15. — The  grave  is  understood  on  all  syllables  not  accented  with 
an  acute  or  circumflex.  The  grave  accent  is  used  on  the  final 


6  SYLLABLES.  §  5. 

• 

syllable  of  a  word  when  followed  by  another  word  with  which  it 
stands  in  connection  ;  as,  avrog  tkeye  ;  but  when  the  word  stands 
alone,  or  not  connected  with  words  following  it,  the  acute  is  used  ; 
as,  avzog,—iw  avrov. 

16. — The  circumflex  can  stand  only  on  a  long  syllable,  and 
that  must  be  one  of  the  two  last*  and  it  can  stand  on  the  penult, 
only  when  the  final  syllable  is  short. 

17. — An  accented  penult,  if  long,  and  followed  by  a  short  sylla- 
ble, must  have  the  -circumflex ;  but  if  the  final  syllable  be  long, 
the  accent  on  the  penult  must  be  acute  ;  as,  rovro,  lovzcp,  ovzo$, 
avrq. 

1.8 — Note.  The  diphthongs  at  and  01,  final,  syllables  long  only  by 
position,  and  the  Attic  wq  instead  of  os,  are  considered  short  in  accen- 
tuation ;  but  the  optative  terminations  ot  and  at,  and  o*  in  the  adverb 
ol'xo*,  are  long. 

19. — In  words  declined  by  cases,  except  participles,  the  accentua- 
tion of  the  nominative  can  be  ascertained  only  by  consulting  a  good 
lexicon.  That  being  ascertained,  the  accentuation  of  the  oblique  cases 
may  be  found  by  the  rules  of  accent  under  each  declension.  These 
rules  apply  generally  to  adjectives  and  participles  of  the  same  declen- 
sion. 

ENCLITICS. 

20. — Certain  words  of  one  or  two  syllables,  when  used  in  dis- 
course, throw  back  their  accent  on  the  preceding  word,  if  in  con- 
nection witn  it,  and  stand  themselves  without  an  accent.  Such 
words  are  called  enclitics. 

21. — The  enclitics  commonly  in  use  are  the  following  ;  viz., 
1.  The  present  indicative  of  the  verbs  etfii  and  gp^^t  in  all  the 
numbers  and  persons  except  the  second  person  singular.  2. 
The  indefinite  rig,  rl,  in  all  its  cases  and  numbers.  3.  The  pro- 
nouns pov,  poi,  [is — GOV,  GOI,  G8 — ov,  oi,  z — pV,  vivy  and  most 
of  those  beginning  with  G(p.  4.  The  adverbs  nwg,  ni],  nol,  TTOV, 
ao&l,  no&w,  HOTS,  not  interrogative,  and,  5.  The  particles, 
TIW,  it',  rot,  &w»  y£j  xiv  or  xe,  vvv  or  vv,  TTSQ,  QU,,  and  8s  insep- 
arable, as  in  ods. 

22. — When  a  word  with  an  acute  accent  on  the  antepenult,  or 
a  circumflex  on  the  penult,  is  followed  by  an  enclitic,  it  takes  an 
acute  on  the  final  syllable,  as  the  accent  of  the  enclitic ;  as,  fleyg 
IJLOI,  dago?  IGTW,  GW pd  [tov. 

23. — But  if  the  preceding  word  have  an  acute  accent  on  the 
penult,  the  enclitic  of  one  syllable  loses  its  accent,  while  the  en- 
clitic of  two  syllables  retains  it ;  as,  'koyog  pov, — hoyog  iwog, — 
iarw. 


§  5.  SYLLABLES.  7 

24.  —  When  the  preceding  word  has  any  accent  on  the  final 
syllable,  the  enclitic  following,  whether  of  one  or  two  syllables, 
loses  its  accent  ;  as,  aw'iQ  rig,  —  qpt^co  6£,  —  %ak£7i6v  ianv,  —  yvv- 
cuxcov  rwow,  &c. 

25.  —  When  several  enclitics   occur   in   succession,  the   first 
having  lost,  or  thrown  back  its  accent  on  the  preceding  word, 
the  second  throws  its  accent  always  as  an  acute  on  the  first,  and 
the  third  on  the  second,  &c.,  till  the  last  only  is  without  an  ac- 
cent *  as,  ei  rig  two,  cpqGi  pot  naQswcu. 

26.  —  The  enclitic  retains  its  accent  when  it  stands  alone,  or  at 
the  beginning  of  a  clause  or  sentence  —  when  the  final  vowel  of 
the  preceding  word  has  been  cut  off  by  apostrophe  —  or  when  the 
enclitic  word  is  emphatic. 

ACCENTS   IN   CONTRACTIONS. 

27.—  In  a  concourse  of  vowels,  if  two  syllables  are  converted 
into  one,  it  is  called  a  contraction. 

28.  —  If  the  first  concurrent  vowel  has  the  acute  accent,  it  is 
changed  into  a  circumflex  on  the  contracted  syllable  ;  as,  qpiAe'oo, 
qpuUdf. 

29.  —  If  the  first  concurrent  vowel  has  not  the  acute  accent, 
the  contracted  syllable  has  not  the  circumflex  ;  as,  ylveog,  y&ovg. 

2.  SPIRITUS  OR  BREATHINGS. 

30.  —  The  Spiritus,  or  breathings,  are  two  ;  the  spiritus  asper, 
or  rough  breathing,  marked  (c  )  ;  and  the  spiritus  lenis,  or  soft 
breathing,  marked  ('  ). 

.31.  —  The  spiritus  asper  has  the  force  of  the  Latin  H;  thus, 
cifia  is  pronounced  Hama. 

Note.  Anciently  H  was  the  mark  for  the  aspirate,  in  Greek,  as  it  is 
in  Latin  ;  thus,  exarov  was  written  HEKATON. 

32.  —  The  spiritus  lenis  only  indicates  that  the  spiritus  asper 
is  not  to  be  used.  These  marks  are  used  as  follows  : 

1st.  A  vowel  or  diphthong,  beginning  a  word,  has  always  a 
spiritus.  In  the  diphthong,  it  is  placed  over  the  second  vowel  ; 
as,  ctyta,  €yo5,  SVQS,  ovtog  ;  but  over  the  first  in  the  diphthongs  a, 


- 

2d.  Initial  ti  has  always  the  spiritus  asper  ;  as,  vrto,  pronounced 
kupo.  • 

3d.  Initial  Q  has  always  the  spiritus  asper  ;  as,  Qtjrag,  pro- 
nounced rhetor  •  Q  not  initial,  if  single,  has  no  spiritus  ;  if  double 


8  SYLLABLES.  §  5. 

the  first  has  the  spiritus  lenis,  and  the  second  has  the  spiritus 
asper  ;  as,  noQcp,  pronounced  poro  ;  TZOQQW,  pronounced  porrho. 

3.  THE   JEOLIC  DIGAMMA. 

33. — The  ^Eolic  dialect,  the  most  ancient  form  of  the  Greek 
language,  had  no  spiritus  asper,  and  it  is  seldom  used  in  the 
Ionic.  The  want  of  it,  in  the  former,  was  compensated,  in  all 
words  beginning  with  a  vowel,  by  a  species  of  aspirate,  now 

Called  THE  JEOLIC  DIGAMMA. 

34. — This  was  originally  a  full  and  strong  consonant  having 
the  sound  of  the  Latin  F  or  V.  It  was  called  digamma,  because 
its  form  (f)  was  that  of  a  double  f.  It  is  thought  to  have  been 
used  by  the  ancients  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel,  and 
between  two  vowels,  which,  by  its  disuse  at  a  later  period,  came 
together  without  forming  a  diphthong ;  thus,  oTvog,  WQ,  fg,  oig,  ' 
aicor,  aoQVog,  coo^,  and  the  like,  were  written  or  pronounced  as 
if  written,  fowog,  Fsag,  Pig,  ofig,  alfav,  arogvog,  cofo^,  &c., 
from  which  the  Latin  vinum,  ver,  vis,  ovis,  cevum,  avernus,  ovum, 
&c.,  were  evidently  derived  before  the  digamma  disappeared. 
Between  two  vowels,  it  was  at  length  softened  down,  and  even 
with  the  ^Eolians  passed  into  v.  Thus  we*  have  avfjQ,  avwg,  for 
the  common  atjQ,  t]cog.  This  accounts  for  the  form  of  some 
words  in  the  Attic  and  common  dialects,  in  which  the  digamma, 
softened  into  v,  still  remains,  especially  where  followed  by  a  con- 
sonant. Thus  the  ancient  %e'rco  passed  into  #£i;oo,  and  lastly  into 
£/G3,  which  still  retains  in  the  future  #£vtfc0,  the  softened  form 
of  the  ancient  ^e'co~oo.  So  xAca'oo,  Attic  xActoo,  has  in  the  future 
xAawTco.  In  like  manner  vcieg,  the  plural  of  vavg,  still  retains  in 
the  dative  vavai,  the  softened  form  of  the  ancient  vdfai. 

35. — 4.  The  Apostrophe  (')  is  written  over  the  place  of  a  short 
vowel  which  has  been  cut  off  from  the  end  of  a  word  ;  as,  aD* 
lyoa,  for  dMa  iyw.  This  is  done  when  the  following  word  begins 
with  a  vowel,  and  in  compounds,  when  the  first  part  ends,  and 
the  last  begins,  with  a  vowel ;  43-3,  1st.  Sometimes  the  diph- 
thongs are  elided  by  the  poets  ;  as,  fiovhop'  lyco  for  fiovkoftcu 
«yw  ;  and  sometimes,  after  a  long  syllable,  the  initial  vowel  is  cut 
off  from  the  following  word  ;  as,  co  'ya&}!  for  co  aya&s. 

36. — Exc.  Instead  of  the  apostrophe,  or  cutting  off  the  final 
vowel,  the  concurring  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted ;  as, 

;/  '  A  \     ,t  >         /.  ^    s 

rtQOVQyov,  for  ago  tQyov  ;  x«*c,  tor  KVLI  ex. 

37 — Note.  The  uflion,  or  contraction  of  such  words,  is  indicated, by 
the  spiritus  being  placed  over  the  vowel,  at  the  place  of  junction,  as  in 
the  preceding  examples. 


§  6.  SYLLABLES.  9 

38.  —  5.  The  Diastole  is  a  comma  inserted  between  the  parts 
of  a  compound  word,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  word  consist- 
ing of  the  same  letters  ;  as,  To,v8,  and  this,  to  distinguish  it  from 
TOTS,  then  ;  o,n,  what,  to  distinguish  it  from  on,  because.     Some- 
times they  are  written  apart,  without  the  comma  ;  thus,  TO  re, 
o  n. 

39.  —  6.  The  Diceresis  ("  )  is  placed  over  a  vowel,  to  show 
£iat  it  does  not  form  a  diphthong  with  the  vowel  which  pre- 
cedes it  ;  as,  oig,  a  sheep,  agave,  mild,  pronounced  o-is,  pra-us. 

40.  —  7.  The  figures  affecting  syllables  are  as  follows  : 

1st.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  one  or  more  letters  to  the 
beginning  of  a  word;  as,  fffuxgog,  for  [MXQO$',  IEMOGI,  for 

EMOGl. 

2d.  Paragoge  is  the  adding  of  one  or  more  letters  to  the  end 
of  a  word  ;  as,  ?/(j#a,  for  ?/£  ;  toioi,  for  roig. 

3d.  Epenthesis  is  the  insertion  of  one  or  more  letters  in  the 
body  of  a  word  ;  as,  ekkafie,  for  &a@e  ;  oTtnore^og,  for 


4th.  Syncope,  is  the  taking  away  of  one  or  more  letters  from 
the  body  of  a  word  ;  as,  rj[k&ov,  for  fav&w  ;  evQa^v,  for 


5th.  Aphceresis  is  the  cutting  off  of  one  or  more  letters  from 
the  beginning  of  a  word  ;  as,  GTEQOTitj,  for  aGTEQom]  ; 
OQTq  for  eogrij. 

6th.  Apocope  is  the  cutting  off  of  one  or  more  letters  from 
the  end  of  a  word  ;  as,  #00,  for  d&pa  ;  Uoaeidco,  for  JIo- 


7th.  Tmesis  is  a  separating  of  the  j)arts,  in  a  compound  word, 
by  an  intervening  term  ;  as,  VTZSQ  twa  £%£iv,  for  VTZZQ- 
i.y&w  TWO,. 

8th.  Metathesis  is  the  transposition  of  letters  and  syllables  ; 
.    as,  IrtQO&crr,  for  enaQ&ov  ;  sdQaxov,  for  edaQxov  ; 
for 


41.  —  065.  The  lonians,  by  a  species  of  Metathesis,  change  the 
breathing  in  a  word  ;  as,  xi&cov,  for  %ircov  ;  iv&avra,  for  IvravO'a. 

§  6.  EUPHONY. 

42.  —  -In  combining  letters  into  words,  the  Greeks  paid  the 
strictest  attention  to  JlJuphony,  or  agreeableness  of  sound.     This 
principle,  indeed,  pervades  the  whole  structure  of  the  language. 
From  a  regard  to  this,  they  carefully  avoided  every  concurrence 

1* 


10  EUPHONY.  §  6. 

of  consonants  not  easily  pronounced  together.     The  means  by 
which  this  is  effected  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following — 

43. — RULES   OF  EUPHONY. 

(It  is  of  great  importance  for  the  student  to  be  very  familiar  with 
the  following  rules,  and  expert  in  applying  them,  before  he  enters  on 
the  3d  declension,  as  they  are  then  required  in  almost  every  step..  To 
aid  him  in  this,  a  table  of  exercises  is  subjoined,  in  which  he  should 
practise,  till  he  can  correct  the  orthography,  and  give  the  rule  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  readiness.) 

1.  Words  ending  in  .at,,  and  verbs  of  the  third 
person  in  s  and  i,  add  v  to  the  termination  before 
a  vowel,  or  before  a  pause ;  as, 

sine?  Ixewoig,  for  TZCCGI  sins  fxsTroitf;  also  the  word 
(twenty),  and  the  adverbs  ftfyvai,  aavraTiaGi,  voccpi, 
£,  omG&e,  X6  and  w.  This  was  called  by  grammarians  v 
GTMov,  because,  by  preventing  the  hiatus  between  two 
vowels,  it,  as  it  were,  drew  the  second  vowel  to  the  first.  Among 
the  poets,  it  is  sometimes  added  to  these  terminations  before  a 
consonant,  when  it  is  necessary  to  render  a. final  syllable  long  ; 
and  sometimes,  by  the  Attic  prose  writers,  to  give  energy  to  the 
tone. 

Sometimes  g  is  added,  on  the  same  principle ;  thus,  ovrcn  be- 
comes ovroog.  Also  the  particle  ov  is  changed  into  ovx  before  a 
vowel,  and  into  ov%  before  an  aspirated  vowel. 

2.  When  two  mutes  of  a  different  sound  come 
together,  they  must  be  of  the  same  strength;  i.  e. 
they  must  be  both  smooth,  or  both  middle,  or  both 
aspirate  /  as,  tnra^  afidskov,  a%&o$. 

If,  by  derivation  or  declension,  two  mutes  of  different  strength 
would  come  together,  the  former  must  take  the  class  of  the  latter ; 
thus,  the  terminations  tog,  dqv,  fteig,  with  ^ccgjco,  the  co  being 
omitted,  form  ygaTTTog,  yQcifidqv,  ygttGp'O'sig]  and  of  two  mutes 
already  combined,  one  cannot  be  changed  without  a  correspond- 
ing change  in  the  other.  Thus  in  sTird  and  oxroo,  if  the  r  be 
changed  into  d,  the  n  must  be  changed  into  ft,  and  the  x  into  y ; 
as,  laid,  Hfldopog ;  oxrw,  oydoog. 

3.  A  smooth   mute  in   the  end  of  a  word  is 
changed  into  its  own  aspirate  before  an  aspirated 
vowel.     This  is  done, — 


§  6.  EUPHONY.  11 

1st.  In  the  composition  of  words  ;  thus,  from  In  (for  Ini)  and 
Qa,  comes  IcpypsQog.  So  from  inzd,  by  apostrophe, 
'  ,  and  ijfMQCt,  comes  ecp&fyeQog  ;  from  Kara  and  tvda, 


2d.   When  words  stand  together  in  a  sentence;    thus,  «p' 
fair,  xa\P  ^«£>  dq?  ov,  &c.,  for  em  fjfiw,  xard  fyas,  dno 


ov. 

3d.   When  words  are  united  by  contraction  ;  thus,  TO  i 
united  become  ftoipdriov  ;  TO  HreQOv,  ftareQOv,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  The  middle  mute  d  is  never  changed  before  an  aspi- 
rated vowel  ;  as,  oixaS*  ixsa&cu  ;  and  ft  and  7,  only  before  dy  and 
seV  in  forming  the  perfect  and  the  pluperfect  active,  218,  Obs.  2. 
—  The  x  in  e'x  is  never  aspirated. 

4.  When  two  successive  syllables  would  begin 
with  an  aspirate,  the  first  is  changed  into  its  own 
smooth  ;  and  the  spiritus  asper,  into  the  spiritus 
lenis  ;  thus, 

/Z£<jpel^xcc,  not  qpeqp/fy/xa  ;  ##«?,  Gen.  rQi%6g,  not  &QI%O$  ;  so 
from  the  root  #(>££,  the  verb  is  T^^OO,  not  ^fi/co  ;  from  ^(>fc(p, 
T^fcgpw,  not  &QKq)G)  ;  from  1^,  f/w,  not  f^w.  (See  below,  06^. 
3.)  In  like  manner  from  #ag>,  the  root  of  I^CCTTTCO  (R.  2.),  is  de- 
rived rdyog,  &c. 

EXCEPTIONS.  To  this  rule  there  are  five  excep- 
tions; viz., 

Exc.  1.  Compound  words  generally  ;  as,  oQm&o&fjQag,  lyvcptj. 

Exc.  2.  0  or  #  before  #  ;  as,  ^pai7/,  %v&7p>ai. 

Exc.  3.  When  one  of  the  aspirates  is  joined  with  another 
consonant  ;  as,  'O'a^&elg,  dnecp&tftov,  nv&zG&ai.  But  the  rule 
holds  when  Q  follows  the  "first  aspirate,  as  above  in  T^W,  not 


Exc.  4.  If  the  second  aspirate  has  been  occasioned  by  a  spiri- 
tus asper  following  it;  as,  tity/'  6  dv&Qwnog,  for  fttyx',  by  apo- 
cope for  fth/x£  ;  7iecp£v%a  for  Tzzysvy-d  ;  and  so  of  others. 

Exc.  5.  When  the  second  aspirate  belongs  to  the  adverbial 
terminations  &sv  or  ih.;  as,  7Tavra%6&£v,  KOQW&O&I. 

Obs.  2.  Of  three  aspirates  beginning  successive  syllables,  it  is 
usual  to  change  only  the  first  ;  as,  reddcparai  for  fteftdyaTaL 
In  some  cases,  however,  the  second  also  is  changed  ;  as,  re'ra- 
cpay  TSTQoya,  for  #£'##<£«,  #fc'$0oqpa. 

06«.  3.  When  the  first  of  two  aspirates  is  the  spiritus  asper, 


12  EUPHONY.  §  6. 

it  is  changed  only  before  #  ;  thus,  o#«>,  a&i,  tj<pa,  &c.,  preserve 
the  spiritus  asper  before  the  aspirates  #  and  cp  ;  but  £#co  must  be 
changed  into  e^w. 

Obs.  4.  When  the  second  aspirate  is  lost  by  inflection  or 
otherwise,  the  first  is  resumed  ;  thus,  l^co,  fut,  f  Jco  ;  TQ£%CO, 
•&Qe%G)  ;  TQs<pa),  &Qeipco  ;  and  the  derivatives  &QE7tr6g,  ftQett- 
ixog,  &c. 

Obs.  5.  The  second  of  two  aspirates  is  seldom  changed.  It 
is  always  done,  however,  in  imperatives  in  &i  ;  as,  ri&sn,  tvcp- 
driri  ;  for  rfoe&t,  vvy&ri&i. 

Obs.  6.  A  mute  may  be  doubled,  but  if  it  be  an  aspirate,  the 
first  is  changed  into  its  own  smooth  ;  as,  ^t&lg,  not  ^[&&ig  ; 
J3dx%og,  not  Bd%%og  ;  Mar&cuog,  not  Ma.&&aiog  ;  ^ancpco,  not 


5.  Initial  (>  is  doubled  when  a  short  vowel  is 
prefixed  ;  as, 

(Pi7irco,  EQQiTtrov  ;  aQQB7tt]g,  from  a  and  genco  ; 
from  TZSi  and     SCO. 


44.  -  1.    THE    MUTES    BEFORE.  2. 

6.  A  ;r-mute  before  6,  unites  with,  it  and  forms 
;  as,  'kziTco),  fainoco,  written  hziyco. 
Y.  A  ^*mute  before  er,  unites  with  it  and  forms 
;  as,  rjxo),  rixGco,  written  rjgco. 
Exc.  But  1%  never  changes  K  before  a  ;  as  f'xcrr^lco. 

8.  A  r-mute  before  ^  is  rejected  ;  thus, 

GGoparGt,    adaco, 
written  Gcopaai       aao 


45.  -  II.    THE    MUTES    BEFORE    M. 

9.  A  ^r-mute  before  /LI,  is  changed  into  ft  ;  thus, 


written 

Exc.  But  after  a  liquid,  a  7r-mute  before  ^  is  rejected  ;  as, 
87i£fi^ai)  for  nm^n\JiQLi  :  —  rsdahfjiat,  for  te&akTTpat,. 

10.  A  ^-mute  before  ^  is  changed  into  y  ;  thus, 


written 
Hence  7  before  ^e,  remains  unchanged  ;  as, 


§  6.  EUPHONY.  13 

11.  A  T-mute  before  /n,  is  changed  into  c  ;  thus, 

IjrVTfAai,       9jO€ldfJUX4, 

written  ipvGftcu,     fyziGftai, 
Obs.  7.  To  these  rules,  there  are  some  exceptions  in  substan- 
tive forms,  as,  «xp/,  not  ayp]  ;  aorpog,  not  noG 


46.  -  III.    CHANGES    OF    THE    LETTER   N* 

12.  N,  before  a  r^r-mute,  or  if/,  is  changed  into 
/LI]  thus, 

hvndvco,     kavfidvco,     evyvg, 
written  hpTtdvco,     kapfidvw,     t[A,(pvg, 

13.  JV,  before  a  #-mute,  or  g,  is  changed  into  y  ; 
thus, 

Ivxeifjuu,     cpvvydvo),     vvvftdvca, 
written  fyxsipai,     cpvyydvco,     vvy%dv(X), 

14.  N,  before  a  r-mute,  remains  unaltered  ;  as, 


15.  N,  before  another  liquid,  is  changed  into 
the  same  ;  thus, 


written  ipft&toy 

16.  N,  before  6  or  £,  is  usually  rejected  ;  thus, 

daipovGi,  Gvr£ev%tg,  —  written  dai'poGi,  Gv&vfyg. 
Obs.  8.  TV  is  retained  before  G  only  in  a  few  words  ;   as, 
TIQVV&  dyuvg,  nttyavGcu.     Before  G  followed  by  a  vowel,  v  in  GVV 
is  changed  into  G  ;  thus,  GVGGSVCO,  GVGGiria,  for  GVVGSVCO,  GWGwia. 
*Ev  retains  v  before  Q,  G,  f. 

47.  -  IV.    OF    THE    LETTER   2. 

17.  In  the  inflection  of  the  passive  voice,  when 
6  would  stand  between  two  consonants,  it  is  re 
jected;  thus, 


without  (T, 
by  rule  2, 

And  so  from  jjyy&rtfcxt,  iflyek&a*  from  7uS<$avG&ov, 
v,  or 


14  PUNCTUATION.  §  7. 

Obs.  9.  But  when  the  first  consonant  is  a  r-mute,  it  is  re- 
jected, and  a  remains  (Rule  8),  thus  : 


become 

18.  When  both  r  and  a  r-mute  together,  are 
cast  out  before  6,  s  preceding  it  is  changed  into 
si,  o  into  ov,  and  a  doubtful  vowel  is  lengthened  ; 
but  r]  and  co  remain  unchanged  ;  thus, 


becomes 


G7T81GCO  ; 


becomes  rvipdGi, ; 


Obs.  10.  In  some  instances,  and  perhaps  always  in  the  nomi- 
native, this  alteration  takes  place  when  v  only  has  been  rejected  ; 
thus,  from  9vg,  tahavs,  [ishavg,  come  tig,  rdkae,  fi&a£. 

19.  When  two  consonants  meet,  which  are  not 
easily  pronounced  together,  the  pronunciation  is 
sometimes  relieved  by  transposing  them,  or  by  in- 
serting a  third  consonant  between  them  ;  thus, 

87ia0&0i>  by  metathesis    (40-8th)  'InQa&ov. 
dv/Qog,  by  syncope  dvQog,      by  inserting  d  (40-3d)    drdgog. 

48.-  —  Table  of  words  to  be  corrected  according 
to  the  foregoing  rules  : 

(Let  the  pupil  always  give  the  rule  for  the  correction.) 


Gvvyovog 
ovg          fted'stxa          IvBairw          Iv/eco  Ivftdkkco 

Jf  f  <-  r  f 

CCVG81  GVV(f)£Q(O  GW^£03  <r*tvr>rn«i>7sr 

TtGUGl  Ttfa'XGGd 


SlGl  aCpGCU 

VOGCpl  7t£l\)GCO  X^XOypU1'  GVVQ8W 


TSTV7TG&CU 


§  7.  PUNCTUATION. 

49.  —  The  marks  oiminctuation  in  Greek  are,  the 
comma  Q  ;  the  cokm  and  semi-colon  (•)  ;  the  pe- 
riod (.)  ;  and  mark  of  interrogation  (;). 


WORDS.  15 


PART-IL 


ETYMOLOGY. 

50. — ETYMOLOGY  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of 
words,  their  various  modifications,  and  their  deri- 
vations. 

§  8.  WORDS. 

51. — WOKDS  are  certain  articulate  sounds  used 
by  common  consent  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

1.  In  respect  of  Formation,  words  are  either 
Primitive  or  Derivative ;  Simple  or  Compowid. 

A  Primitive  word  is  one  that  comes  from  no  other  ;  as,  nai$, 
dya&og. 

A  Derivative  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from  another  word ; 
as,~7tcud£(a,  ay  a^  or  ^g  ;  from  7talgy  aya&og. 

A  Simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  combined  with  any  other 
word ;  as,  £?«Meo. 

A  Compound  word  is  one  that  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
simple  words  ;  as,  £x^#M,a>,  from  «c  and  ^ccHoo. 

2.  In  respect  of  Form,  words  are  either  De- 
clinable or  Indeclinable. 

A  Declinable  word  is  one  which  undergoes  certain  changes  of 
form  or  termination,  to  express  the  different  relations  of  gender, 
number,  case,  person,  &c., — in  grammar,  usually  termed  Acci- 
dents. 

Obs.  1.  In  every  declinable  word,  there  are  at  least  two  parts, 
the  root  or  stem,  and  the  termination.  The  root  remains  un- 
changed, except  by  euphony,  in  all  the  different  forms  which  the 
word  assumes.  The  termination  is  added  to  the  root,  and  is 
varied,  to  produce  these  different  forms. 

Obs.  2.  The  variation  of  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  par- 
ticiples, is  called  Declension  /  that  of  verbs,  Conjugation  or  Inflec- 
tion. 

An  Indeclinable  word  is  one  that  undergoes  no  change  of  ter- 
mination. : . 


16  PAKTS  OF  SPEECH. — THE  NOUN.  §  9,  10. 

3.  In  respect  of  Signification  and  Use,  words 
are  divided  into  different  classes,  called  Parts  of 
Speech. 


§  9.  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

52. — The  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage are  eight ;  viz., 

1  %  Noun  or  Substantive,  Article,  Adjective, 
Pronoun,  Verb,  declined. 

2.  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  unde- 
clined. 

Note.  Any  part  of  speech  used  simply  as  a  "word,  and  spoken  of,  is 
regarded  as  a  noun ;  thus,  'Eyw  is  a  dissyllable ;  Ttoiq  is  an  adverb ;  i.  e. 
the  word  lyo),  the  word  ntis,  written  in  Greek  TO  iyo),  to  TZOH;. — Thus 
used  it  is  indeclinable. 

Obs.  1.  The  participle,  regarded  by- some  as  a  distinct  part  of 
speech,  properly  belongs  to,  and  forms  a  part  of,  the  verb. 

Obs.  2.  In  Greek,  the  interjections  are  considered,  by  most 
Grammarians,  as  adverbs. 


§  10.  THE  NOUN.      - 

53. — A  Nouisr  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place, 
or  thing. 

Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  Proper  and  Common. 

1.  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  applied  to  an 
individual  only ;    as,  "Oftrjgog,  *A&r\vai, ;   Homer, 
Athens. 

Among  these  may  be  included^ 

1st.  Patronymics,  or  those  which  express  one's  parentage,  or 
family ;  as,  nQiapidqg,  the  son  of  Priam. 

2d.  Gentile,  or  Patriot,  which  denote  one's  country ;  as, 
l4&qvaiogt  an  Athenian. 

2.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  applied  to  all 
things  of  the  same  sort ;  as,  dvr\Q,  a  man  ;  otxog, 
a  house  ;  fiifihog,  a  book. 


§11.  ACCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN.  17 

54.  —  Under  this  class  may  be  ranged, 

1st.  Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude,  which  signify 
many  in  the  singular  number  ;  as,  haog,  people. 

2d.  Abstract^nouns,  or  the  names  of  qualities;  as,  aya&orri^ 
goodness. 

3d.  Diminutives,  or  nouns  which  express  a  diminution  in  the 
signification  of  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  formed  ;  as,  nui- 
diovt  a  little  boy  ;  from  ncug. 

4th.  Amplificative  nouns,  or  those  which  denote  an  increase 
in  the  signification  of  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  formed  ; 
as,  xajpaAow,  a  person  who  has  a  large  head  •  from 


Note.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  only,  and  is  used 
to  distinguish  tnat  individual  from  all  others  of  the  same  class.  A 
common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  objects,  and  is  equally  applicable 
to  all  the  individuals  contained  in  that  class. 


§  11.  ACCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN. 

55. — To  Greek  nouns  belong  Person,  Gender, 
Number,  and  Case. 

1.  PERSON. 

56. — Person,  in  grammar,  is  the  distinction  ol 
nouns  as  used  in  discourse,  to  denote  the  speaker, 
the  person  or  thing  addressed,  or  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of.  Hence, 

57. — There  are  three  persons,  called  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third. 

A  noun  is  in  the  first  person,  when  it  denotes  the  speaker  or 
writer ;  as,  *Ey<x>  Ilavkog  syQaifja,  "  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

A  noun  is  in  the  second  person,  when  it  denotes  the  person  or 
thing  addressed ;  as,  Maivri,  Ilavie,  "  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thv 
self." 

A  noun  is  in  the  third  person,  when  it  denotes  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of;  as,  '0  Havhog  Iqp-^,  "Paul  said." 

Note.  Person  has  nothing  to  do  either  with  the  form  of  a  noun,  or 
with  its  meaning ;  but  simply  with  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used. 
Hence,  the  same  noun  may  at  one  time  be  in  the  first  person;  at 
another,  in  the  second ;  and  at  another,  in  the  third,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing examples. 


18  ACCIDENTS  OF  THE   NOUN.  §11. 

2.  GENDER. 

58. — GENDER  means  the  distinction  of  nouns 
with,  regard  to  sex.  There  are  thfee  genders, 
Masculine,  Feminine,  and  Neuter. 

Of  some  nouns,  the  gender  is  determined  by  their  signified 
twn  ; — of  others,  by  their  termination. 

The  Masculine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  denote  the 
male  sex. 

The  Feminine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  denote  the 
female  sex. 

The  Neuter  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  are  neither 
masculine  nor  feminine.  Also  to  any  term  used  simply  as  a 
word  ;  as,  to  JTOO£,  52,  Note. 

Nouns  which  denote  both  males  and  females  are  said  to  be 
of  the  Common  gender,  i.  e.  they  are  both  masculine  and  femi- 
nine. 

The  gender  of  nouns  not  determined  by  their  signification,  is 
usually  to  be  ascertained  by  their  termination,  as  will  be  noticed 

under  each  declension. 

, 

Obs.  1.  In  Greek  lexicons  and  grammars,  the  gender  is  indi- 
cated by  the  article ;  viz.,  6  indicates  the  masculine,  ^,  the  femi- 
nine, and  TO,  the  neuter ;  as,  6  dvrJQ,  the  man ;  ?/  ytwy,  the  wo- 
man ;  to  £coor,  the  animal. 

3.  NUMBER. 

59. — NUMBER  is  that  property  -of  a  noun  by 
which  it  expresses  one  or  more  than  one. 

Greek  nouns  have  three  numbers,  the  Singular, 
Dual,  and  Plural.  The  Singular  denotes  one; 
the  Plural  more  than  one. 

The  Dual  denotes  two,  and  is  most  commonly  used  in  speak- 
ing of  those  things  which  are  produced,  or  are  usually  spoken  of, 
in  pairs. 

Obs.  2.  In  the  oldest  state  of  the  Greek  language,  the  dual  is 
not  used.  It  is  not  found  in  the  JEolic  dialect — in  the  New 
Testament— in  the  Septuagint, — nor  in  the  Fathers.  It  is  most 
common  in  the  Attic  dialect,  in  which,  however,  the  plural  is 
often  used  instead  of  it. 


§  12.  ,  DECLENSION.  19 

x 

4.    CASE. 

60. — CASE  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun 
with  respect  to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

61. — Greek-  nouns  have  five  cases;  viz.,  the 
Nominative,  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and 

Vocative. 

1st.  The  Nominative  case,  for  the  most  part,  denotes  the 
name  of  an  object  simply,  or  as  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed. 

2d.  The  Genitive  connects  with  the  name  of  an  object,  the 
idea  of  separation,  origin,  possession. 

3d.  The  Dative  represents  the  thing  named  as  that  to  which 
something  is  added,  or  to  or  for  which  something  is  said  or  done. 

4th.  The  Accusative  represents  the  thing  named,  as  affected 
or  acted  upon  by  something  else,  and  also,  as  the  object  to  which 
something  tends  or  relates. 

5th.  The  Vocative  is  used  when  persons  or  things  are  ad- 
dressed. 

Obs.  3.  There  is  no  Ablative  case  in  Greek,  as  in  Latin.  Its 
place  is  supplied  by  the  genitive  and  dative. 

Obs.  4.  All  the  case's  except  the  nominative,  are  called  ob- 
lique  cases. ' 

§12.  DECLENSION. 

62. — DECLENSION  is  the  mode  of  changing  the 
terminations  of  nouns,  adjectives,  &c. 

63. — Words  declined  by  cases,  consist  of  two  parts, — the  Root 
and  the  Termination. 

64. — The  ROOT  is  that  part  which  remains  unchanged  by  in- 
flection, except  as  required  by  the  rules  of  euphony.  •  It  consists 
of  all  that  precedes  the  termination  in  the  genitive  singular ;  thus 
Gen.  np-ijg,  hoy-ov,  hdpTtad-og.  Roots,  rip,  Ao^,  lapnad. 

65. — The  TERMINATION  is  that  part  which,  by  its  changes, 
indicates  the  different  cases  and  numbers. 

66. — Nouns, — and  also  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  participles, 
— are  declined  by  annexing  the  terminations,  or  case-endings,  to 
the  root.  Except  the  accusative  in  ?>,  of  the  third  declension, 
102. 


20 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS. 


§13. 


.  67. — In  Greek,  there  are  three  declensions,  cor- 
responding to  the  first,  second,  and  third,  in  Latin. 
They  are  distinguished  as  follows : 

The  first  declension  has  the  genitive  in  ag,  or  q$,  from  feminine 
nominatives ;  or  in  ov  from  masculine  nominatives  in  ag  or  q$. 

The  second  has  the  genitive  in  ov,  from  og  or  ov. 

The  third  has  the  genitive  in  og  whatever  be  the  nominative. 
The  difference  between  these  declensions  will  be  seen  at  one 

view  in  the  following : 

68. — Table  of  Terminations. 


First  Declension.                   Second.                       Third. 

Nom.  a,    q,   ag,  i^g, 

o^,  neut.  oy, 

a,  i,  v,  03,  v,  |,  £,  ft  i/;, 

Gen.    ag,  ^g,  ov,  ov, 

ov, 

og, 

Dat,     a,   77,    a,    77, 

V* 

i, 

Ace.    av,  qv,  av,  qv, 

ov,. 

a,  Exc.  as  102,  &  69-2, 

Voc.    a,   q,   a,   77. 

s,  neut.  ov. 

like  nom.  Exc.  as  104. 

Dual. 

N.  A.  Y.  a, 

G), 

£, 

G.  D.       cuv. 

OIV. 

ow. 

Plural. 

Nom.  at, 

01,  neut.    a, 

eg,  neut.  a, 

Gen.    av, 

03V, 

aw, 

Dat.    aig, 

oig, 

tf£, 

Ace.   <*£, 

ovg,  neut.  a, 

ag,  neut.  a, 

Vnn.     /vf 

*/-»    TiAnt..    rt. 

§  13.  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

69. — GENERAL  RULES. 

1.  The  vocative  for  the  most  part  in  the  singu- 
lar, and  always  in  the  plural,  is  like  the  nomina- 
tive. 

2.  Nouns  of  the  neuter  gender  have  the  nomi- 
native, accusative,  and  vocative  alike ;  and  these 
cases  in  the  plural  end  always  in  a. 


§  14.  FIRST  DECLENSION.  21 

3.  The  dative  singular  ends  always  in  i,  either 
annexed  or  written  under. 

4.  The   nominative,    accusative,   and    vocative 
dual  are  alike ;  so  also  the  genitive  and  dative. 


§  14.  FIKST  DECLENSION. 

70.  —  The   First  Declension  has  four   termina- 
tions of  the  nominative  singular;  two  feminine, 
r\,  a  ;  and  two  masculine,  ^  ag.  Of  these,  the 
principal  termination  is  77. 

ACCENTS. 

71.  —  Words  in  the  first  declension  are  accented 
according  to  the  following  — 

72.  —  SPECIAL  KULES. 

1.  Ths  genitive  plural,  for  the  most  part,  has 
the  circumflex  on  the  final  syllable. 

Exc.  The  exceptions  are  the  feminine  of  adjectives  and  parti- 
ciples in  o£,  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable  ;  and  the  words 
and  dcpvq,  which  have  XQTJGTCOV,  Ireciow,  dcpvow. 


2.  In  the  other  cases,  so  far  as  the  general  rules 
.  permit,  the  accent  always  remains  on  the  same 

syllable  as  in  the  nominative. 

3.  When  the  accent  in  the  nominative  singular 
is  on  the  termination,  all   genitives  and   datives 
have  the  circumflex  on  the  final  syllable. 

QUANTITY. 

73.  —  Nouns  in  a  with  the  genitive  in  i^g  have  a  short,  except 
in  the  nominative  dual  and  accusative  plural,  which  are  always 
long.  Nouns  which  have  the  genitive  in  agy  have  a  long.  To 
this  there  are  a  few  exceptions. 


22 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


§15,16 


74.  —  Paradigm  of  Nouns  in  q  :  npij,  honour. 

Sing.                          Dual.                       Plural. 

N.  rtp-tj, 

N.  rip-  at, 

G.  Tip-ijg, 
D.  vip-ty 

N.  A.  V.  np-a, 

GTpw                        ~ 
.  JJ.  tip-aw. 

G.  vip-tiv, 

Ar 

A.    Vl.p"t]V9 

.  np-ag, 

v.  tip-ri. 

V.  vip-ai. 

75.—  §  15.  SPECIAL  RULES  FOE,  FEMININE  NOUNS. 
1.  Nouns  in  ce  have  the  accusative  singular  in 


ccv. 


2.  Nouns  in  a  pure  (4-4),  and  (?#,  retain  a  in 
all  the  cases  of  the  singular. 

Obs.  To  these  may  be  added  a  few  words  ending  in  da,  &a, 
and  cc,  circumflex,  contracted  for  da  ;  and  a  very  few  in  Arc  and 
pa.  Such  words  have  a  always  long  ;  as,  <M,op;lcc,  Gen.  < 


1. 


76. — EXAMPLES.. 
2.    • 


3. 


N.  Mbi5(T-a,  a  mwse. 

N.  cpiki-a,  friendship. 

N. 

G.  Mow-rig, 

G.  cpM-ag, 

G. 

D.  Movo-y, 

D.  quM-a, 

D. 

A.  Movcr-ar, 

A.  yihi-av, 

A. 

V.  Mova-a. 

Y.  qM-a. 

V. 

N.  ijp/Q-a,  a  day. 


Note.  In  the  dual  and  plural,  all  nouns  of  this  declension  are  de- 
clined like 


77.—  §16.  SPECIAL  RULES  FOR  MASCULINE  NOUNS. 

1.  ISfouns  in  ^^  and  «c  have  the  genitive  in  oz/  ; 
and  lose  g  in  the  vocative. 

Obs.  1.  Some  nouns  in  ag  have  the  genitive  in  ov  or  a;  as, 
TiaTQankoiag,  gen.  aarQaTikolov,  or  Tta.TQan'koia,  a  parricide. 
Some  have  a  only  ;  as,  Qcopag,  gen.  ©oo^cc,  Thomas. 

2.  Nouns  in  r^g-  have  «  in  the  vocative  ;  those 
in  <Tr>?£  have  either  77  or  #  ;  as, 


voc.  Ttoiijr    ; 


voc. 


or 


§17. 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


23 


Obs.  2.  Nouns  denoting  a  people  or  nation;    as,  IleQ 
Persian  ;  compounds  in  nr\q  ;    derivatives  from  pevQa), 
and  rQifiw  ;  also  hdyrqg,  Mevafypyg,  and  nvQcu'xpqg,  have  the 
vocative  in  a. 

3.  In  the  other  cases,  masculine  nouns  are  de- 
clined like  tie  feminine^  to  which.  their  termina- 
tions correspond. 


78.  —  EXAMPLES. 
Singular. 


1. 

Atrides. 


2. 

Citizen. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 

V. 


3. 

Youth. 
vean-ag9 
veam-ov, 
ream- a, 
yeam-av, 
veavi-a. 


4. 
Pythagoras. 


The  dual  and  plural  of  masculine  nouns  are  the  same  as  the 
dual  and  plural  of  ripy. 

Obs.  Since  the  termination  qg,  belongs  also  to  the  third  de- 
clension, it  may  be  observed,  that  to  the  first  pertain  the  nouns 
in  idtjg  or  ddqg  ;  as,  Qovxididqg,  ^^i^idd^g ; — the  names  of  na- 
tions ;  as,  ^Mshwrrjg  ; — nouns  in  rqg,  derived  from  verbs ;  as, 
aoiTjTrjg  from  aoieco ; — compounds  from  bvoviiai,  I  buy  ;  I*ETQG), 
I  measure  ;  TQI@G),  I  rub,  wear,  train  ;  7tcol.<a,  I  sell ;  and  from 
words  of  this  declension  ;  e.  g.  'OkvpTUowxrig,  from  nxq ; 
dixqg,  from 


t       §  17.  DIALECTS  OF  THE  FIEST  DECLENSION. 

7  9. — Besides  the  regular  terminations  exhibited  in  the  para- 
digms, many  words  are  found  in  different  cases  declined  accord- 
.  ing  to  some  of  the  peculiar  dialects.  In  the  tables  of  termina- 
tions, A.  denotes  Attic,  I.  Ionic,  D.  Doric,  JE.  ^ffiolic :  but  the 
distinctions  %re  not  strictly  observed  in  every  instance, — the  same 
peculiarities  sometimes  occurring  in  two,  and  sometimes  in  three 
dialects.  The  following  words  are  exhibited  as  examples,  but  it 
is  not  to  be  inferred  that  each  part  of  them  will  actually  be  found 
in  the  Greek  authors. 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


§18. 


Singular. 


Nom. 
D.  cc. 


Ilv&ayog-aq,  I.     77?. 


Gen. 

r,     D.  aq. 
-77?,     D.  OK,-. 
-a?,     I.    T/S. 
(I.    «a». 
-on,  -J  D.  a. 


Dat. 


-oe,,  I.    7j. 
-a,  I.    7]. 

-fl,  D.  a. 


Nom. 


tip-a 


Gen. 

-r  f 

D.  «^,  & 


Dat. 
-cug,  I.  Jff,  <fe 


D. 


Ace. 


D.  av. 

L  1 


Voc. 
-77,     D.  a. 

-a,     I.    n. 

A.  ac. 


Acc. 


Voc. 


Thus,  pqnsTrje,  M.  pqrisra,  a  wise  person  ;  nqfeidov,  I.  JZ"//- 

o,  of  P elides  ;  ^4lv£iov,  JE>.  ^4weiao,  of  ^Eneas ;  Oqfialg, 
I.  0q@ri$j  or  0^^c7f,  ^w  Thebes;  okod,  I.  ohoy,  pernicious ;  %QV- 
<7fitf,  I.  XQVGSIJ,  golden.  For  the  genitive  and  dative  in  qpi  or  qp^, 
see  8  31. 


§18.  CONTRACTIONS. 

80.  —  In  a  concourse  of  vowels,  if  two  syllables 
are  converted  into  one,  it  is  called  a  Contraction. 
Of  contractions  there  are  two  kinds  : 

1.  A  contraction  without  a  change  of  vowels  is 
called  Synceresis  ;  as,  rsi^s'i,  by  synaeresis,  rsi^st,. 

2.  A  contraction  with  a  change  of  vowels  is 
called  Crasis  /  as,  y£&,  yf}  ;  —  cpifes,  cpiKsi,  ;  —  voovy 

VOVV  ;  -  OtiTtOV,  06TOVV. 


Obs.  If  the  first  of  the  concurrent  vowels  has  an  acute  accent, 
it  is  changed  into  a  circumflex  on  the  contracted  syllable.  If 
the  first  concurrent  vowel  has  not  an  accent,  the  contracted  sylla- 
ble has  not  the  circumflex,  28,  29. 

3.  In  the  rules  for  contractions  generally,  let  it  be  remembered 
that  * 

the  two  short  vowels,  e,    o, 

have  their  own  long  vowels,  q,    co, 
and  their  own  diphthongs,     si,    ov. 
Note.  A  contraction  is  oTten  made,  but  not  always. 


§  19,  20.  SECOND  DECLENSION.  25 

§  19.  CONTRACTIONS  OF  THE  FIRST  DECLENSION. 

81. — In  the  first  declension,  no  contraction  takes  place  unless 
the  first  of  the  concurrent  vowels  is  e,  o,  or  a  short,  and  the  nomi- 
native contracted  is  then  declined  regularly. 

EULES. 

1.  Ea  not  after  Q  is  changed  into  ^ ;  as, 

yla,  earth,  pi,  G.  ^£,  D.  yj,  &c.  like  ripy. 
yovGsa,  golden,  %QV6t],  G.  XQVGtjg,  D.  %Qv&rl,  &c. 
Epfisag,  Mercury,  'EQfttj?,  G.  ^EQ^QVy  D.  EQ^J  &c. 

2.  In  Qta  and  other  concurrent  vowels,  strike 
out  the  first ;  as, 

TtoQtyVQsaj  purple,  TTogcpvQa,  G.  noQCpvQag,  D.  aoQtpVQa,  &c. 
\6iq,  simple,  aft}.?],  G.  ct,n)Jf}g,  &c. 

>da,  Minerva,  Jt&qva,  G.  ^4&r]vag,  D.  A$YIVM.^  &c.,  75. 


rfi,  Apelles,  j&n&tiqg,  G.  JbreUov,  D. 


82. EXAMPLES    FOR    PRACTICE. 


t\vri,  ike  moon. 
qe,  a  sophist. 


,  a  dove. 
Aivduq,  ^Eneas. 
a,  a  bridge. 
a,  frenzy. 

q£t  a  harper. 
Anax- 


agoras. 


,  the  tongue. 


ayoQ(i,  the  forum. 


,  an  artist. 
fi,  pleasure. 
ia,  an  angle. 
/&«,  force. 
avqa,  a  breeze. 
ana,  sadness. 

qs,  a  wrestler. 


peace. 
croqp/ia,  wisdom. 


black. 

,  miserable. 
ixfy  justice. 
'j,  counsel. 
j  a  sword. 
iag,  high- 
minded. 


Note.  The  learner  should  decline  some  of  the  words  in  this  tahle  ac- 
cording to  the  different  dialects :  and,  in  like  manner,  in  the  second  and 
third  declensions,  according  to  their  dialects. 


§  20.  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

83. — The  seccpid  declension  has  two  termina- 
tions of  the  nominative  singular ;  o$  and  or ;  ov 
is  always  neuter,  o$  never. 


26 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


§20. 


ACCENTS. 


84.  —  Words  in  the  second  declension  are  ac- 
cented according  to  the  following  — 


SPECIAL   RULES. 


1.  As  far  as  the  general  rules  permit  (13,  &c.) 
the  accent  remains  on  the  same  syllable  in  the  ob- 
lique cases,  as  in  the  nominative.     To  this  rule  the 
genitive  plural  is  not  an  exception,  as  in  the  first 
declension. 

Exc.  1.  The  Attic  forms  in  cog  and  cor  are  accented  as  in  the 
common  form  :  i.  e.  the  final  long  syllable  permits  the  accent  to 
remain  on  the  antepenult.  See  88,  avayecov. 

2.  When  the  accent,  in  the  nominative  singular, 
is  on  the  final  syllable,  all  genitives  and  datives 
have  the  circumflex  on  the  final  syllable. 

Exc.  2.  Except  the  genitive  singular  of  nouns  in  cog  ;  as,  vecog, 
gen.  vsco. 

85.  —  EXAMPLES. 


1.  Paradigm  of  the  Masculine  and  Feminine  Nouns  in  • 
6  hoyog,  the  speech. 

Dual.  Plural. 

1ST.  "koy-01, 

N.  A.  V.  Aoy-co,  G.  Aoy-eo*>, 

D.  I6y-oig, 
G.  D.  Aoy-ow. 


Singular. 
K  My-og, 
G.  Aoy-ov, 
D.  Aoy-(p, 
A.  7*6y-ov, 
V.  Aor-c. 


A.  hoy-ovg, 
V.  Aoy-o«. 

In  the  same  manner  also  are  declined  nouns  in  or,  observing 
the  second  general  rule  (69-2)  ;  thus, 

2.  Paradigm  of  Neuter  Nouns  in  ov ;  [tEtQOv,  a  measure. 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

~\r      '  "\r 

G/  "XT  A  TT-  /  fV 

.    fJiSTQ-OV,  JN.    A.     V.    [AEtQ-CO,  (jr. 

D.  petQ-cp,  .       D. 

A.  pitQ-ov,  G.  D.  perQ-ow.          A.  peTQ-a, 

V.    U£TQ-OV.  V. 


S2L 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


27 


Nom.                 Gen. 

'•-off,  A.  coff. 

-ov,  A.  co, 
I.  &  D.  oifO. 

Nom.                Dat. 

'-01,  A.  cp. 

I.  &  D!  oiai. 

86.— §21.  DIALECTS  OF  THE  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

Singular. 

Ace.  Voc. 

A.  coy,  &  co.     -£,  A.  off  &  coff. 

Plural. 

Ace.  Voc. 

-ovff,  A.  coff.  -o/,  A.  cj>. 

D.  coff,  &  off. 

JE.  o/ff. 

8Y. — Neuter  nouns  in  the  Attic  dialect  have  the  same  termi- 
nations with  nouns  in  off ;  except  that  v  is  substituted  for  ff. 

Thus  it  will  appear  that  the  Attic  form,  in  which  off  is  changed 
into  coff,  oy  into  coy,  and  ot  into  co,  is  the  principal  variation  in 
this  declension.  Let  it  be  observed,  however,  that  a  long,  and  ij, 
before  off,  are  changed  into  e  before  coff ;  as,  Aaoff,  Attic  tacofff  « 
short  remains  unchanged;  as,  ra-off,  ra-coff,  or  it  is  contracted 
with  the  o  into  coff;  as,  c^paoff,  cfy/^coff.  For  the  genitive  and 
dative  in  cpi  or  qpw,  see  §  31. 

88. EXAMPLES    OF    THE    ATTIC    DECLENSION    OF    NOUNS    IN    Off. 

Singular. 
off  for  layoff.  yfcoff  for  yaoff.      cJycoyfcoy  for  cJyco^oy. 

a  hare.  a  temple.  a  building. 

N. 
G. 
D. 

A.  Aayco,  or  coy, 
V.  Aaycoff,  or  off. 
. 


vsco,  or  vecov, 
or  yaoff. 


vcoyewv, 
avayewv. 


N.  A.  V. 
G.  D. 


.  V. 


Dual. 
vew, 


vcoyecpv. 


Plural. 
vecp, 


vwyecov, 


G. 
D. 
A. 

Obs.  The  Attics  did  not  decline  all  nouns  in  off  in  this  man- 
ner, but  only  a  very  few.     The  same  forms  occur  also  in  the  Ionic 


28 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


§22. 


and  Doric  writers.  After  this  form,  the  Attics  often  declined 
nouns  which  otherwise  belong  to  the  third  declension ;  as,  MtVoo, 
Ace.  for  MiVcoa,  from  Mivti$\  G.  Mwooog ;  yfilcov,  Ace.  for  ^ca- 
ret, from  yelroff,  y 


§  22.  CONTRACTIONS  OF  THE  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

89. — In  the  second  declension  contractions  are 
seldom  used,  and  never,  unless  the  first  of  the  con- 
current vowels  is  short. 

KULES. 

RULE  I.  Two  short  vowels  concurring  are 
changed  into  ov. 

Except  ss  in  the  vocative  singular,  never  contracted. 

RULE  II.  A  short  vowel  before  a  diphthong, 
or  before  a  vowel  not  short,  is  rejected. 


90. EXAMPLES. 

6  voo$,  contracted  vovg,  the  mind. 

insular.  Dual.  Plural. 

N.  A.  V. 
2  vd-03      wo 

G.  D. 
2  vd-oiv     vow 


Singular. 

N.  Eule 

1  vo-og 

vovg 

G. 

2  vd-ov 

vov 

D. 

2  *>o-o) 

VO) 

A. 

1  vd-ov 

vovv 

V. 

1  vd-s 

vov 

Plural. 
N.  2  vd-oi 
G.  2  vd-wv 
D.  2  vo-oig 
A.  2  vd-ovg 
V.  2  vd-oi 


rot 


voig 
vovg 


TO  OGTSOV,  contracted  o6TOvv,  the  bone. 


Singular.  Dual. 

N.  OGTK-OV     oGtovv  N.  A.  V. 

G.    OGVS-OV  OGTOV  OCTTS-CO          OCTTGO 

D.    OGVS-Cp  OGTCp  G.  D. 

A.    OGrl-OV  OGtOVV  OGrS-OW       OGVOll 

V.    OGTZ-OV  OGTOVV 

Decline  and  contract  in  the  same  manner,  nkdog,  navigation  ; 
$6og9  a  stream  ;  %vdog,  down  ;  ad&cptdeofr  a  nephew. 


Plural. 

N.    OCTTfc'-CC  OGttt, 

G.    OGTZ-COV       OGtWV 

Da          /  3  ~ 

.    OGTS-Olg       QGTOlQ 

A. 

y. 


§23.  THIRD  DECLENSION.  29 


91. WORDS   FOE   PRACTICE. 


,  a  messenger, 
derog,  an  eagle. 
dO-hog,  a  combat, 
a&kov,  a  prize. 

-,  a  vine. 

',  silver. 


,  silver. 


,  work. 

v,  an  apple. 
vorog,  the  south  wind. 
olxog,  a  house. 
aaidlov,  a  child. 


a  rose 
-,  iron. 

,  an  army. 
',  a  burden. 

copper. 


XQVGog,  gold. 


§  23.  THIKD  DECLENSION. 

92. — The  third  declension  has  seven  termina- 
tions of  the  nominative  singular,  a,  i>  v,  co, — v,  Q, 
g :  it  has  all  genders,  and  increases  the  noun  by 
one  syllable  in  the  oblique  cases. 

Note.  Nouns  in  £  and  i/>  are  considered  as  ending  in  g  (8-6). 

93. — The  root,  seldom  unchanged  in  the  nomi- 
native, is  always  found  in  the  genitive  singular  by 
omitting  og  (64). 

The  oblique  cases,  for  the  most  part,  are  formed 
by  adding  the  terminations  (68)  to  the  root. 

ACCENTS. 

94. — Words  in  the  third  declension  are  accent- 
ed according  to  the  following — 

SPECIAL    RULES. 

1.  The  accent,  in  the  oblique  cases,  remains  on 
the  accented  syllable  of  the  nominative,  as  far  as 
the  general  rules  permit,  13 — 17. 

Exc.  1.  But  civqQ,  dafjQ,  nan'jQ,  and  (jom/p,  in  the  vocative, 
throw  the  accent  back  on  the  penult;  as,  aveQ,  daeQ,  &c.  See 
104,  Exc. 

Exc.  2.  When  the  genitive  singular  ends  in  cog  instead  of  og 
(98-4),  there  is  no  change  of  accent,  and  the  genitive  plural  is 
accented  as  the  genitive  singular;  as,  nohg,  nokscog,  aqte&v. 

2.  Words  of  one  syllable  in  the  nominative  sin- 
gular, accent  the  final  syllable  of  the  genitive  and 


30 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


§23. 


dative  in  all  numbers  ;  and  in  these,  the  final  sylla- 
ble long  has  the  circumflex.  So  also  yvvri,  xvoov, 
and  syncopated  substantives  in  TJQ,  99-4. 

JEJxc.  3.  Except  d(ig,  a  torch.;  dpcog,  a  slave  ;  dag,  a  jackal  ; 
xgdg,  XQarog,  the  head  ;  ovg,  the  ear  ;  noug,  a  child  ;  afjg,  a 
moth  ;  Tgotg,  a  Trojan  ;  <pcpg,  a  burning  ;  <jpoa£,  light  ;  which  in 
the  genitive  plural,  and  in  the  genitive  and  dative  dual,  have  the 
acute  accent  on  the  first  syllable. 

Except  also  participles  of  one  syllable  ;  as,  dovg,  dovrog,  &c.  ; 
and  the  dual  and  plural  of  nag,  viz.  :  ndvtoiv,  ndvrwv, 


3.  The  vocative  of  nouns  in  avQ,  we,  ov^  co, 
and  &?£,  has  the  circumflex  on  the  final  syllable  ; 
as,  yqav,  /3a6e,hsv)  cfec. 

95.  —  Nouns  in  the  third  declension  are  declined 
as  follows  : 

1.  Paradigm  of  Masculine  and  Feminine  Nouns  ;  o  &TJQ,  the 
wild  beast. 


Singular. 


K 
G. 

D. 

A. 
V. 


Dual. 

N.  A.  Y.  # 
G.  D. 


Plural. 


G. 
D. 

A.  &7]Q-ag, 
Y. 


Neuter  nouns  are  declined  in  the  same  manner, 
observing  the  2d  general  rule,  69-2. 


2.  Paradigm  of  Neuter  Nouns  ; 


Singular. 
N. 
G. 

D.  firma-n, 
A.  ^cc, 
V. 


Dual. 

N.  A.  Y.  $ 
G.  D. 


a  tribunal. 
Plural. 


G. 
D. 
A. 
Y. 


H,  44-8. 


Note.  In  the  declension  of  nouns  which  take  roc,  (Toe,  or  $o?,  in  the 
genitive,  the  Rule  44-8  must  be  particularly  attended  to  in  the  dative 
plural. 


§  24,  25.  THIRD   DECLENSION.  31 

§  24.  FORMING  THE  GENITIVE. 
96. — GENERAL  RULES. 

1.  If  the  noun  does  not  end  in  g,  add  og,  or 
rog  to  the  nominative ;  as, 

N.  o    naidv,  apcean,  G.  naicw-og  Root  naiav 

to  P&I,  honey,                plli-tog-  fishr 

o    p]v,  a  moth,              PW^fa  Mv 

o    TtvQ,  fire,                    nvQ-6g  TIVQ 

o    Zwocpwv,  Xenophon,         £e.voqwv-tog  Sfaw 

to  (jco^cc,  the  body,            Gcopa-Tog  (TCOjwa 

2.  If  the  noun  ends  in  g,  reject  g,  and  add 
rog,  §0$,  or  -frog  ;  as, 

N.  6     yocog,      a  hero,  reject  $  {JQCO      G.  %oa)-og     Root  ^ 
6     ^.^27?,      a  caldron,  ta^ty  .         isfirj-rog 

i]    ^.afiTzdg,  a  torch,  kafATia       kafAird-dog 

6,?jOQmg,      a  bird,  OQVI  oQm-&og  OQW& 

o    ava%,      a  ruler,  dvax          avax-rog  dvowr 

ri     'kvtil.vL'ty,  a  storm,  \aikan      )*aika,7t-og         kaiLan 

Whether  og,  tog,  dog,  or  #o£,  is  to  be  added,  can  be  learned 
only  by  practice  and  consulting  the  dictionary. 

97. — EXCEPTION.    But  if  the  noun  ends -in  0£, 
insert  s  before  it.     All  these  are  neuter ;  as, 
N.  refyog,      a  wall,  G.  vefy-e-og      Root  tei%s 

l*£Qog,       apart,  fieg-e-og  pegs 

OQog,         a  mountain,  og-e-og  OQS 


§25.  THE  PENULT. 

98. — If  the  final  syllable  of  the  nominative  con- 
tain a  long  vowel  or  "diphthong,  it  is  commonly 
shortened  in  the  root  by  the  following — 


RULES. 


1.  A  diphthong  casts  away  its  subjunctive  vow- 
el; as, 


32 

THIRD  DECLENSION. 

§25. 

N.-6  fioGilevg, 
o  {iovg, 
?}  vavg, 

the  king,            G.  /3o<7(JU-c0£,  . 
/A0  o#,                      /?o-o£, 
tffo  s/^j0,       Doric,  va-6g, 

Root  fiacds. 

VOL. 

2.  A  long  vowel  is  changed  into  its  own  short ; 

Root, 


6  aoiprjv, 

the  shepherd, 

G.  7toin&v-og, 

^IIjTCO, 

Latona, 

dqro-og, 

0  HWVWV, 

the  rule, 

xcwbv-og, 

b  dodxwv, 
/}  aidag, 

the  dragon, 
modesty, 

dodxov-rog, 
cudo-og, 

vsrvcpc&g, 

having  struck, 

rsrvcpo-rog, 

aido. 
tsrvcpor. 

3.  i  and  t/,  whether  long  or  short,  are  changed 
into  s ;  as, 

N.  /}   dvvafug,        the  power,        G.  dvvdps-ag,        Root,  Swaps, 
to  Ttav,  the  flock,  nas-og, 


THE    GENITIVE    IN    00  £. 

4.  Nouns  in  ig  and  vg,  when  they  change  i  and 
v  into  fy  and  likewise  nouns  in  s  vg,  take  the  Attic 
instead  of  og  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 


N.  6  vopevg,         the  shepherd,         G.  vojjit-wg,         Root, 

11  TZQhg,  the  city,  nole-wg,  aole. 

o  Titiyvg,          the  elbow, 


99.  —  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Neuters  in  i  and  v  have  the  genitive  in  €op;  as,  &GTV,  G. 
acteog.     The  Ionic  and  Doric  writers  retain  i  in  the  oblique 
cases  of  nouns  in  ig  and  i',  as,  nokig,  G.  nohog,  D.  itohi.     But 
even  in  these,  the  dative  is  usually  contracted  into  si  ;  as,  &£Uf, 
nofai.     Also  nouns  in  t£  sometimes  have  the  Attic  scpv  instead 
of  so  iv,  in  the  genitive  and  dative  dual. 

2.  All  Greek  words  ending  in  $,  which  take  v  in  the  genitive, 
appear  to  have  originally  ended  in  vg,  and  the  v  at  length  was 
dropped  for  the  sake  of  euphony;  46-16.     But  to  maintain  the 
former  quantity  of  the  nominative,  the  doubtful  vowel  was  made 
long,  and  the  short  vowels  were  changed  into  their  own  diph- 
thongs ;  thus,  the  original  terminations  avg,  ivg,  vvg,  evg,  ovg, 

were  changed  into  ag,    Ig9    vg,    sig,    ovg. 
But  the  oblique  cases,  regularly  formed  from  the  original  nomi- 
native, remain  unchanged  ;  as  in  the  following  examples  : 


§26.  THIRD  DECLENSION.  33 

Nona.          originally.  Gen.  Root. 

yiyavg,  yiyav-rog,  yiyavi. 

dskcpivg,  dskcpw-og,  dskquv. 

(poqxvvg,  cpOQxvv-og,          cpOQxvv. 

wttiq,  xtevg,  •  xrsv-oc,  xrw. 

odovg,  odovg,  odor-tog,  odovr. 

3.  Instead  of  rejecting  v  before  g  in  the  nominative,  sometimes 
the  g  was  dropped  and  the  v  retained;    and  hence  the  double 
forms  of  the  nominative  which  sometimes  occur:  as,  d&cpig  or 
dekcpw ;  cpOQxvg  or  yoQxvv. 

4.  Certain  nouns  in  trjQ,  having  reQog  in  the  genitive,  are  con- 
tracted by  syncope  in  the  genitive  and  dative  singular,  and  in  the 
dative  plural  (106-R.  2),  and  throw  the  accent  in  the  genitive 
and  dative  singular  on  the  final  syllable  (94-2) ;  as, 

a  father, 


a  mother, 

So  also,  avt'iQy  a  man,  dvsgog,  avftgog.  (47-19.) 

Note.  The  nouns  thus  contracted  are  TICITTJQ,  a  father  ;  /n^Trj^f  a  mo- 
ther ;  &vydrr](),  a  daughter ;  yaatTjf),  the  belly ;  dijivqnjQi  Ceres ;  and 
avrtf),  a  man.  This  last  rejects  t  in  all  the  cases  and  numbers  except 
the  vocative  singular. 


§26.  THE  GENITIVE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

100. — Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  form  the  genitive  by 
the  same  rules  as  substantives ;  but  some  form  it  from  the  mas- 
culine, and  others  from  the  neuter  gender;  and  the  genitive 
formed  from  either  gender,  is  also  the  genitive  of  the  other.  The 
gender  from  which  the  genitive  is  formed  may  be  ascertained  by 
the  following — 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

1.  Adjectives  in  i$  and  ov^  form  tlie  genitive 
from  the  nominative  masculine ;  as, 

M.    (THAOTtCLTOig,        ^\  f  -L     ^  i'*  -r* 

AT    ^  -5  /       ^         Uen.  ot  both,  cpi^oTtaroioog,     Root,  < 

JM.    CplAOTiaTQl, 

M.  dtrtovg,  u       IL       *'     * 

N.  dtxovv,         }  Mo?> 

2.  Adjectives  not  in  ig  or  ovg,  form  the  genitive 
from  the  nominative  neuter ;  as, 


34  THIRD  DECLENSION.  §27. 

Masc.  Neut.  Gen.  of  both.  Root. 

r?Q£v,  tender,  t£QW-og,  t£Q£v. 

dkqfa'g,  true,  dkri\}£-og, 

[t&av,  black,  p&av-og, 

%ct()i£ig,          %aQi£v,  graceful,          %aQi£v-vog, 

Obs.  1.  This  rule  applies  universally  to  participles  of  the  third 
declension,  ani  these  have  their  genitive  always  in  rog ;  as, 

N.  Masc.  N.  Neut.  Gen.  of  both.  Root. 

Gtdg,  Gtdv,  Grdv-iog,  GTCX.VT. 

didovg,  didov,  didov-tog,  didovr. 

rvTicov,  rvTtov,  rvnov-tog,  rvnovr. 

vvtyftug,  tvcp&w,  tvcp&w-tog,  tvty&zvr. 

For  the  declension  of  adjectives  and  participles,  see  §§  46,  47. 


§  27.  THE  ACCUSATIVE  SINGULAR. 

101. — The  Accusative  singular  of  masculine  and 
feminine  nouns  con^monly  ends  in  a.  But, 

102. — SPECIAL  RULES. 

RULE  1.  The  genitive  in  og  pure,  from  ^^  vs, 
avg,  and  ovg,  changes  g  of  the  nominative  into  v ; 
thus, 

Nom.  Gen.  Ace.  Root. 

oqp(£,  a  serpent,  oyi-og,  ocpw,  oqi. 

fioTQvg,       a  bunch  of  grapes,       fioTQV-og,        @OTQVV,        @OTQV. 
vavg,          a  ship,  Doric,  va-6g,  VGLVV,  vat 

fiovg,          an  ox,  @o-6g,  @ovv,  @o. 

Likewise  kdag  and  %aQt,$  have  v ;  as, 

Nom.  Gen.  Ace.  Root. 

he/Lag,  a  stone,  hda-og,  hciav,  Acuoc. 

%UQt£)  favour,  %aQi-zog,  %UQW,  XaQir- 

Exc.  But  dig,  /li-6g,  Jupiter,  has  dta ;  and  Xagig,  the  nam 
of  one  of  the  Graces,  has  XaQira',  and  %QQvg,  the  skin,  has  %Qoa, 
seldom  %QOVV. 

RULE  2.  "Words  in  vg,  -sog,  and  compounds  of 
novg,  afoot,  have  a  or  v ;  as, 


§28.  THIRD  DECLENSION.  35 

Norn.  Gen.  Ace.  Boot. 

eaxv£,        •      cox/-o£,  coxt'-tf,     or  coxw>,  coxe. 

dirzovg,  dino-dog,  diao-da,  or  dtaow,  dmod. 

•RuLE  3.  Words  in  ig  and  v$  not  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  with  the  genitive  in  og  not  pure, 
have  a  or  v\  as, 

Nom.          Gen.  Ace.   .  Root. 

SQig,          SQi-dog,          £Qi-da,      or  BQW,          tgid. 
xoQvg,      xoQV'&og,      %vQv-&a,  or  XOQVV,      xogtrih 
So  also,  xfaig,       xkei-dog,        xfai-da,    or  xfaw, 


Obs.  Such  words,  in  prose,  have  almost  always 
but  in  poetry,  commonly  a,  seldom  v. 


§  28.  THE  VOCATIVE 

103. — The  vocative  singular  is  for 
like  the  nominative.     But, 

104. — SPECIAL  RULES. 

RULE  1.  A  short  vowel  in  the  genitive,  from  a 
long  vowel  of  the  nominative,  remains  short  in  the 
vocative;  as, 
Nona.  Gen.  Voc.  Root. 

"EXTCOQ,  Hector,  "ExroQ-og,         "ExtOQ,  'EXTOQ. 

Exc.  But  nouns  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  have  the  voca- 
tive long;  as,  Ttoipyv,  Gen.  aoi[ASv-og,  Voc.  ttoifMjv  ]  except  THX,- 
rrjQ,  dvfjQ,  and  datjQ,  which  have  the  vocative  adrsQ,  aveQ,  and 
ddeQ,  with  the  accent  thrown  back. 

J&roAAcw,  IIoGEidar,  and  crom/£>,  with  the  long  vowel  in  the 
genitive,  have  the  final  vowel  short  in  the  vocative,  and  the  ac- 
cent thrown  back ;  thus,  J&no'D.ov,  TIoGsidov,  GoSrsQ. 

RULE  2.  Nouns  in  tg,  vg,  and  svg,  reject  g  in  the 
vocative ;  as, 


ocpig,  V.  ocpi  ;  —  fioryvg,  V.  ^or^v;  —  fiaaikzvg,  V.  fiaadev. 
Likewise,  nous,  yQavg,  and  fiovg  ;  Voc.  acu,  yQav,  @ov. 


36  THIKD  DECLENSION.  §29. 

RULE  3.  Feminines  in  cog  and  co  make  the  voca- 
tive in  oe,  ;  as, 

aldcog,  V.  aidoi,  £artqxa,  V.  -Zctsrqpor. 

RULE  4.  Nouns  in  &Q,  -avroz  (99-2),  have  the 
vocative  in  av\  those  in  fig,  -wTog  have  the  voca- 
tive in  w  ;  as, 

]S"om.  Gen.  Voc.  Root. 

Ajax,  Aiav-tog,  A'luv,     . 

Simois,          Zipow-rog,         ^ipoev, 
Note.  In  proper  names,  however,  the  poets  often  reject  v,  as, 


Obs.   yvvf}  has  yvvai  in  the  vocative  ;  and  ava%,  in  addressing 
the  deity,  has  ava  ;  otherwise  &va%. 

RULE  5.  In  adjectives,  th§  vocative  masculine 
is  like  the  nominative  neuter  ;  as, 
N.  Masc.  *  K  Neut.  V.  Masc. 


Sinovv. 


Note.  This  rule  does  not  apply  to  participles.     These  follow  the  gen 
erarl  rule  ;  as,  N.  &  V.  tvrtiwv,  tvTttouGa,  tvTttov. 


§  29.  THE  DATIVE  PLURAL. 

105. — The  dative  plural  is  formed  by  adding  at 
to  the  root.  Besides  the  changes  required  by  the 
rules  of  Euphony  (44-8),  other  changes  are  to  be 
noticed  under  the  following — 

106. — SPECIAL   EULES. 

RULE  1.  Nouns  in  «/£,  avg,  and  OVQ,  insert  v 
before  61,  in  the  dative  plural ;  as, 


§29. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


37 


N.  6  fiaadevg,       the  king,  G.  ^ewijU-co^,     D.  PL 

//  vavg,              the  ship,  va-6g,  Doric.             vav-Gi. 

11  8ovg.             the  cow,  8o-6g,                        BOV-GI. 

i  i      ^ '                         *  \       ~"                       \ 

Exc.  But  novg,  afoot,  no-dog,         has         TIOGI. 

RULE  2.  Nouns  in  TTJQ,  -TSQOZ' after  a  syncope, 
have  ceo  i,  (99-4)  ;  as, 

rtarfjQ,      G.  narzQ-og,  (rtatSQGi)     by  syncope,      TtarQaGt. 


Exc.  But  yaGri'iQy  G.  yaGtSQ-og,  has  sometimes 


107. — Examples  of  the  preceding  Rules. 


In  the  following 
the  example  #7 


6,  pasturer. 

N. 

G. 

D. 

A. 

Y. 


examples,  note  the  difference  between  them  and 
OS,  96-1,  and  give  the  rule  for  the  difference. 


6,  shepherd. 


KA.Y. 
G.D. 


Singular. 

?/,  cow.  6,  a  divinity.      o,  fo'oft. 

/9ov^  dcuutof  fe'cov 

po-og  daiuov-og  h'ovt-og 

fio-i  8cu[j,ov-i>  \iovt-i 

fiovv  daiiJiov-a  hsovt-a 

fiov  daipov 

Dual. 
fio-e         datpov-s 


noiv-og 

TtOl^V-l 


«<  vops-eg 

G. 

D. 

A.  voul-ag 

Y. 


Plural. 
daifiov-eg 


jy,  c^y. 
N.  nokig 
G.  nobs-tog 
D.  7t6fa-i 
A.  ;roAw> 

Y.    JTO^t 


fio-ag 
po-eg 


],  SOW. 

Gv-6g 

GV-'t 
GVV 
GV 


Movr-e 
faovr-ow 


ksovt-eg 
heovr-cov 
ke'ov-Gi 


ocu[AOv-ag 
daipov-sg 

Singular. 
6,  swift, 
coxvg 


heovr-sg 


,  strife.         6,  father. 


OJXfc-i  £QIO 

COXg'-CC,  -COXtT  BQIV 
OOXV  £Ql 


38 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§30. 


N.A.V. 


N. 
G. 
D. 


GV-S 


G.D.    710%8'OIV       GV-OW 


Gv-sg 

GV-MV 
GV-Gl 


A.  nbfa-ag     Gv-ag 
V. 


Dual. 

COX/-S 

Plural: 
coxs'-eg 

COX8-OW 


Gv-eg       wx8-eg 


SQld-S 
SQld-OtV 


8QI-GI 

SQid-eg 


§  30.  DIALECTS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

108. — From  the  variety  of  terminations  in  nouns  of  this  -de- 
clension, it  is  impossible  to  exhibit  them  in  one  concise  table. 
But  the  general  principles  are — The  nominative  and  vocative  At- 
tic are  alike, — The  Attic  genitive  is  in  sag,  instead  of  eog  and 
tog, — The  Ionic  has  27  in  the  penult, -through  the  oblique  cases, 
instead  of  e  and  a ;  and  with  the  poets  makes  e GL  or  EGGI  instead 
of  Gij  in  the  dative  plural. 


ISTom. 


vavq. 


Singular. 

Gen 

Dat. 

Ace.               Voc. 

( 

I.   ijoq. 

')            ) 

-ia. 

j 

-iv,  A.  f  vq. 

f 

D.  & 

[  A.  faq.  [ 

-ii,l*ji. 

>•  I.  r^a. 

c"  ( 

JE.  f  vq. 

)       ) 

-VV,  I 

a.  ) 

-v,    A.  vq. 

-to?, 

A.  eo)q. 

-u. 

-IV. 

-*,     A.^ 

-aoq, 

I.  ^6? 

&  it&q. 

-cttLyt 

-avv, 

I.?juv,  Tja. 

-av,  A.  avq. 

-oo?, 

JE.S,. 

-o'L 

-0«, 

(  I.    ovv. 

-ol,  A.  oj?. 

Plural. 


'Nona.,  and  Voc. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

f  A.  ijq. 
Paffd-itq.  4  or  T/?. 

-E(l)V,  I-  7/0)r. 

(  I    Wff*. 

y<r<>     (  P.  t/ecrff*. 

(  I  f  f  ?. 

v-aiq,             I.  ?/£?• 

-awv,  I.  ^wv. 

-auo-/,   j  p  ^^ 

f«^ 

^ 

j  I.  ffffft'. 

(  P.   Bfffffl,. 

Ace. 


Thus,  Gen.  %8&8og9  of  a  lip,  Dor.  %8&8vg;  Voc.  Masc.  dvG- 
zv%8g,  Attic  8vGTv^g ;  as,  dvGTv%qg  yzgov,  0  unfortunate  old 
man  ;wDat.  pi.  %8QGi,  Ion.  YSIQSGG^  to  hands  ;  Accus.  ^///roo,  Za- 
J  a,  Ion.  A^TQVV^  Gen.  aGtsog,  of  a  city,  Attic  aGtecog;  Yoc. 
0  modesty  Attic  aldcog. 


§  31,  32.  THIKD   DECLENSION.  39 

Sii 

§  31.  THE  TARAGOGIC  gpt  or  yir. 

109.  —  Sometimes,  and  particularly  in  Epic  poetry,  the  sylla- 
ble (pi  or  <jpw  annexed  to  the  word,  is  used  for  the  genitive  or  da- 
tive, both  singular  and  plural.  It  is  annexed,  in  the 

FIRST  declension,  by  changing  a  or  ^  into  r^i,  e.  g. 
xecpah'jcpi  ;  fiia,  fiirityi,  or  jtiqcpw. 

SECOND  declension,  by  changing  og  or  ov  into  ocpi,  e.g. 
tog,  GTQaroqiw. 

THIRD  declension,  by  changing  og,  genitive  eog,  into  eacpi;  as, 


110.  —  A  few  deviations  from  this  mode  of  annexing  the  cpi  oc- 
cur. This  form  of  the  genitive  and  dative  appears  to  have  had 
originally  an  adverbial  signification  like  the  endings  #«,  &€v,  de. 
To  render  it  more  definite,  the  preposition  was  often  prefixed,  as, 
fiagd  vavcpw,  near  the  ship,  or  ships  ;  and  lastly,  it  was  used 
for  a  case  without  a  preposition,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  or- 
dinary forms  of  the  genitive  and  dative  ;  thus,  nharbg  nrvocfHV, 
the  breadth  of  the  fan,  dfoafycpi,  neTZoi&wg,  confiding  in  valour. 


111.  —  The  termination  &sv  appears  to  be  an  appendage  of  a 
similar  nature,  but  is  found  only  in  the  genitive;  as,  e'J  ov 
&ev,  from  heaven.     So  lus&w  for  Ipov  ;  ffe'tfw  for  crov,  &c. 


§  32.  GENDERS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

112. — The  Genders  of  substantives  of  the  third  declension, 
so  far  as  determined  by  the  termination,  are  as  follows : 

113. — KULES. 

1.  Nouns  in  evg,  ag  -avrog,  av,  and  vv,  are  al- 
ways masculine  ;  as, 

evg  o%£vg,  o  a  clasp  Gen.  6%eog 

ag  -avvog  dvdQidg,  o  a  statue 

av  naidv,  o  apcean 

vv  cpoQxvv,  o  a  harbour 

2.  Nouns  in  ag  -adog,  rrjg  -rrjTog,  avg,  co,  and 
verbals  in  ^  are  always  feminine  ;  as, 


40 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§33. 


ag,  -adog             kapTtdg,  rj 

a  torvh 

Gen.  kafinddog 

T^g,  -tqtog           xaxorqg,  i\ 

wickedness 

xaxotqtog 

avg                      vavg,^  //  ^ 

a  ship 

vaog 

co                         cpeidco,  fj 

parsimony 

cpeidoog 

ig,  verbal             cpvaig,  q 

nature 

(pvaeag 

3.  Nouns  in  #,  i,  v, 

ag  -arog, 

og>  and  og,  are 

always  neuter. 

a                         @W<*t  to 

a  tribunal 

Gen.  fitjpatog 

i                          p&U»  to 

honey 

(Ashrog 

V                                      71G)V,  10 

a  flock 

ncoeog 

ag  -atog            XQsag,  TO 

flesh 

XQtatog 

og                       tsfyog,  to 

a  wall 

tsfysog 

OQ                       aoQ,  to 

a  sword 

cioQog 

Obs.  1.  Nouns  of  other  terminations  are  so  varied  in  gender, 
that  no  general  rule  can  be  given  respecting  them. 

Obs.  2.  Dialect  frequently  varies  the  gender  in  all  the  declen- 
sions. Thus,  fiatog  is  masculine  in  Attic,  otherwise  feminine ; 
and  so  of  others. 


114.— §33.  WORDS  FOR  PRACTICE  ON  THE  PRECED- 
ING RULES,  FROM  §§20-27. 

Decline  the  words  in  the  following  list ;  accent  them ;  give  the  rule 
for  the  genitive  and  the  accent,  and  for  the  other  cases  when  they  vary 
from  the  example  -d^g. 

the  old  man. 
the  nightingale. 


ri    dqdcov  (o) 

6 

« 
o 

f 

V 

n 

tO  7.V\1(,OL 
0     \M\V 

to  av&og 
to  ylvog 
11   dxtig    (v 
o 


the  elbow. 

the  air  (104-1). 

the  hope. 

the  strife. 

the  helmet. 

the  wave. 

the  month. 

the  flower. 

the  race. 

the  ray. 

the  poor  man. 


to 

0 
0 

1 
7 

7 

0 

c 

6 
6 

oQog 
OQSvg 

M\ 

Ifiag 
Ttltvg 
lidvtig 

hpfjv 

(7) 

(*) 

(o) 
(«) 

(«) 

the  mountain, 
the  mule, 
the  flame, 
the  goose, 
the  action, 
the  cough, 
the  flesh, 
the  snow, 
the  thong, 
the  pine, 
the  seer, 
the  goat, 
the  haven. 

§  34,  35.  THIKD  DECLENSION.  41 

§  34.  CONTRACTIONS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

115. — In  the  oblique  cases  in  the  third  declen- 
sion, tttere  is  no  contraction,  unless  the  first  of  the 
concurrent  vowels  is  either  short,  or  a  doubtful 
taken  as  short. 

In  verbs  and  in  some  other  contractions,  the  first  of  the  con- 
current vowels  is  sometimes  long. 


§  35.  GENERAL  RULES. 

116. — The  following  Rules  are  universal,  being  applicable,  not 
only  to  contractions  of  the  third  declension,  but  also  to  those  of 
verbs,  and  of  all  cases  in  which  concurrent  vowels  admit  of  con- 
traction, except  such  as  fall  under  the  rules  for  contractions  in  the 
1st  and  2d  declensions,  81  and  89.  Concurrent  vowels  are  con- 
tracted as  follows : 

1.  A  short  vowel  with  the  same,  is  contracted 
into  its  own  diphthong ;  as,  fs  into  M  ;  oo  into  ov. 

Exc.  1.  In  the  third  declension,  ee  of  the  dual  is  contracted 
-into  77. 

II.  A  short  vowel. with  the  other  short,  is  con- 
tracted into  ov ;  as,  os  or  £ o  into  ov. 

III.  A  short  vowel  with  «,  is  contracted  into 
its  own  long  vowel ;  as,  s a  into  77 ;  oa  into  co. 

Exc.  2.  But  ea  pure  into  a. 

IV.  A  short  vowel  with  i,  is  contracted  by  Sy- 
no&resis  ;  as,  si:  into  M ;  ol'  into  01. 

V.  E  before  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong,  is  re- 
jected. 

Exc.  3.  But  in  verbs,  sat  is  contracted  into  77. 

VI.  1.  O.with  a  long  vowel,  is  contracted  into 
co  ;  as,  or]  into  co  ;  oco  into  co. 

2.  O  with  a  diphthong,  the  prepositive  vowel 
being  rejected,  is  contracted  by  Synceresis  ;  as,  ooi, 
into  01  &c. 


42  THIRD  DECLENSION.  §36. 

Exc.  4.  But  osig  and  o£w>,  i  being  rejected,  me  contracted  by 
Orasis  into  ovg  and  ovv. 

VII.  1.  ^  with.  o,  or  6X,  is  contracted  into  co ; 
aSj  ao  or  aco,  into  6;. 

2.  A  with  a  .vowel,  not  o  or  ^  is  contracted  int< 
a ;  as,  #£  into  a,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  ^before  a  diphthong  is  contracted  with  the  preposjf 
tive  vowel  only,  the  subjunctive  being  rejected. 

Obs.  2.  In  contraction  by  crasis,  i  is  never  rejected,  but  is  writ- 
ten under:  except  in  osw  and  osig,  119,  Exc.  3. 

Obs.  3.  Neuters  in  ag  pure  and  gag,  reject  t  in  the  oblique 
cases,  and  then  contract  the  concurrent  vowels. 

VIII.  If  the  former  of  two  vowels  is  i  or  v,  or 
a  long  vowel,  the  latter  is  rejected;  as,  is  contract- 
ed i ;  vs ,  v ;  rjfy  r\. 

Note.  2doq  and  ffooq,  safe,  when  a  contraction  occurs,  are  contracted 
by  the  foregoing  rules ;  thus,  odoq,  ffwq,  VII.  1. ;  adov,  ow,  VII.  1. ;  <rota, 
aa,  VII.  2. ;  ffdovc;,  crux;,  VIL  1. ;  aoag,  (7w?,  III. 


§36.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  PRECEDING  RULES  FOR 
CONTRACTIONS.    . 

117. — The  following  list  comprises  all  the  concurrent  vowels 

that  usually  admit  of  contraction.     Contract  them  and  give  the 
rules. 

1  aa                   12  aoi                  23  eoi  34  oca 

2  ES                     13  aov                  24  sov  35  oei 

3  a                      14  sd                    25  ^s      •  36  0% 

4  oo                    15  sa,  pure          26  ^e  37  ooi 

5  as                    16  £«'                     27  ^i  38  oov 

6  a?y                    17  €0                    28  you  39  va 

7  ai"                   18  £co                   29  »  40  vs 

8  ao                   19  £Q>                   30  oa  41.  v^  rare 

9  «co                   20  mi                   31  os  42  ooa 

10  asi                  21  m                    32  027  43  cat 

11  ag  22  ey  33  oi* 


§37.  THIRD   DECLENSION.  43 

WORDS    FOR    PRACTICE. 

1 1 8. — In  the  following  words,  contract  the  concurrent  vowels, — give 
the  rule  for  each  contraction, — change  the  accent  where  required  after 
»  contraction,  and  give  the  reason  for  the  change. 

dqftOG&eres         ^Jqrbog  pefarosv 

sag  /JripoGfi 

&«  (exc.  2)  diytOG'd'evsi         ^TOL 

dfooco 
dqkoov 

npdopsv  TipdG)  hdag  vipas 

ripdei  Tipdi] 

xe'gag  -arog        ocpisg 


[18QZOW  flUQSa  [A€Q£G)V 

aofeeg  cpeidoog  cpm8oi'  cpeidoa 

xsQarog,  116.  Obs.  3. 3 


Stjkooi 
fiosg  qdb's  Gaog  Goag 


§  37.— CONTRACTS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

119. — N.  B.  In  the  inflection  of  declinable  words,  the  vowels 
that  concur  are  the  final  vowel  of  the  root,  and  the  first  vowel  or 
diphthong  of  the  termination.  In  the  examples  of  contracts  that 
follow,  as  well  as  in  the  table  of  contract  verbs  (258),  the  hyphen 
( - )  does  not  separate  the  termination  from  the  root,  but  that  part 
of  the  root  not  affected  by  contraction,  from  the  rest  of  the  word. 
By  this  means  the  concurrent  vowels  are  brought  together,  and 
the  change  made  by  contraction,  is  rendered  more  obvious. 

120. — Concurrent  vowels  are  not  always  con- 
tracted in  the  third  declension,  but  only  as  direct 
ed  by  the  following — 

SPECIAL  KULES. 

1.  The  accusative  plural  assumes  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  nominative ;  thus, 

N.  Toiua-eeg,  )       /          N.  ocp-ieg,  )  *        N.  Boto-vsg, 

A'  >•  rm//0-£j£.  ,    >™         [-OQMC.  A    %r  " 

.TQirjQ-eag,)    ****    *  A.  oy-iag,  f   T  *  A.  fiorq^vag, 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


§37. 


JExc.  But  8ag  pure  is  contracted  into  dg  (116,Exc.  2);  as, 
%oag. 

2.  The  genitive  in  tog,  from  jjg^  sg,  og,  or  in 
uog,  not  from  ovg,  and  also  neuters  in  ag  pure  and 
-ag>  contract  the  concurrent  vowels  in  all  cases. 

121. — Example  of  the  Genitive  in  sog,from  r^g. 

r\  TQifaqg,  the  trireme. 
Singular. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


Dual. 

N.  A.  Y. 

N. 

-ovg 

VQUjQ-88           -1] 

G. 

-81, 

G.    D. 

D. 

-n 

tQiriQ-WlV       -GIV 

A. 

Y. 

Plural. 


-G)V 


-81$ 


122. — Example  of  the  Genitive  in  eog,from  og. 

to  T8T%og,  the  wall. 


Singular. 
N.  rsfy-og 
G.  t8i%-8og       -ovg 

D.   V8l%-8l'  -81 

A.  r8i%-og 
V.  T8i-og 


N.    ^-03 

G.  ?i%-oog 
D.  ^-oi* 
A.  ?/^-oa 

V5  / 

.      -ot 


Dual.  Plural. 

N.  A.  Y.  -      N.  refx-ea 

-ri  G.  v&frim 

G.  D.  D.  rfift-fiff* 

V*f-&H9          -OW  A.   T8l%-8a 

Y.  t8i%-8a 
123. — The  Genitive  in  oog,  not  from  ovg. 

r\  //^oa,  the  echo'. 
Singular.  Dual. 

N.  A.  Y. 


-ovg 

-or 

-co 


G.  D. 


Plural. 

Nj          r 
.  ift-ot* 

G.  ^-wy 
D.  fy-oig 
A.  fy-ovg 

V3  f 

.      -oi 


124. —  Obs.  1.  Nouns  in  oo  and  co£  have  the  singular  only,  of 
the  third  declension.  The  dual  and  plural  are  of  the  second,  136 
-2  (4).  Hence  the  contraction  takes  plaice  only  in  the  singular, 
as  in  the  above  example.  The  accusative  in  6a  contracted  co, 
from  the  nominative  in  cog,  has  the  circumflex  according  to  rule 
(80  Obs.) ;  as,  aidoa  contr.  cudco.  The  same  contraction  from 
the  nominative  in  oa,  has  the  acute ;  as  in  the  example  123. 


§37. 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


125. — Examples  of  Neuters  in  ag  pure  and  gag.     (116,  Obs.  3.) 


to  xQsag,  the  flesh. 
Singular. 

A      "V7"  '  ^' 

.A.  V.  xge-ag 
G.  XQ8-ai 
D.  XQS-ai 

Dual. 

-as      -a 
-dow  -cpv 

Plural. 


-aog   -c 
-ai     -c 


N.  A.  V. 
G.D. 


.  A.  V. 
G. 
D. 


-aa     -a 
-dcov   -eoV 


to  x£Qag,  the  horn. 

Singular. 
N.  A.  V.  %8Q-ag 

G.  xsQ-atog     -aog     -ojg 
D.  xt'Q-ati       -ai       -a 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  xsQ-ats      -as       -a 
G.D.  xsQ-dtoiv    -doiv     -opv 

Plui-al. 
N.  A.  V.  xso-ata      -aa       -a 

s 


G. 

D. 


-acov 


126.  —  3.  The  genitive  in  £0$  or  eco^  not  from  77^ 
f  ^  o^  ;  and  also  the  genitive  in  tog,  contract  only 
the  dative  singular  and  the  nominative,  accusative, 
and  vocative  plural.  Those  in  eve  contract  also 
the  nominative  dual. 

127.  —  Examples  of  the  Genitive  inemg,  not  from  qg9  eg,  or  og. 
o  fiatidevg,  the  king. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


Singular. 


s,  (98-4) 
-ei 


Dual. 
*.  A.  V. 
d-s's 

G.  D. 


Plural. 


•n 


f  *g     -£ig 

A.  BaGik-lag    -eig 
y 


Exc.  But  nouns  in  evg  after  a  vowel,  contract  also  the  genitive 
and  accusative  singular,  and  the  genitive  plural ;  thus, 

6  #0£V£,  the  measure. 


c.2) 


Singular.                    Dual.                       Plural; 

1ST.  %o-evg 

N.  A.  V. 

N.  %o-&g    -sig 

G.  %0-scog       -tig 

%0-E8          -1] 

G.  ydheW  -coy 

D.  %o-li          -sT 

G.  D. 

D~ 
.   ^0-€V(7t 

A.  %o-&a          -a 

%0-GOW 

A.  %o-£ag   -ag 

V.  %o-ev 

V.  %0-eeg    -eig 

THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§87. 


In  this  way  IletQGUsvg  has  genitive  II&QCUcog,  Ace. 
and  aywevg,  in  the  accusative  plural,  has  ayviag  contracted  for 
tea,  ayvieag;  and  so  of  others. 

%  Tiohg,  the  city. 
Singular.  Dual. 

N.  A.  V. 


G. 

D. 

A. 

V. 


-El 


G.  D. 


Plural. 
N.  Ttol-eeg 
G.  ftok-ecov 
D.  TroA-eff^) 
A.  nol-sag 
V.  nok-eeg 


-eig 


-eig 


The  Ionics  always  decline  words  in  ig,  genitive  to^v;  as,  nokig, 
wg,  like  noQTig ;  but  they  make  the  dative  in  el'. 

-    128. — Example  of  the  Genitive  in  cog. 

6,  q  aoQtig,  the  calf. 


Singular. 

N.  noor-ig 

P       ' 

Df  _ 

.    TZOQT'll  -I 

A.    710QT-IV 

V.      ' 


Dual. 
K  A.  Y. 
s 
G.  D. 


Plural. 

Nf 
.  TtQQt-ieg 

G.    7IOQT-ICOV 

D. 
A. 
V. 


-ig 


g     -«? 

Note.  The  words  declined  in  this  way,  besides  7t6^r^f  are  6  niq,  the 
wood-worm;  6,  r\  rlyQiq,  the  tiger  ;  6  Trotr^-,  the  husband;  TJ  firjviq,  wrath ; 
r\  tQoni^j  the  keel;  and  the  uncontracted  o'iq,  a  sheep; — some  proper 
names;  as,  *I(pi,q; — and  adjectives  in  t,q,  i,,  which  have  to?  in  the  genitive 
Other  nouns  in  iq  not  inserting  a  consonant  are  declined  like  nohq. 

129. — Exc.  Adjectives  in  vg,  neuter  v,  have  the  common  geni- 
tive (eog),  and  do  not  contract  sa  in  the  plural.  152. 

130.— 4.  Nouns  in  vg  itog,  and  ovg  oog,  contract 
only  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  plu- 
ral; as, 

6  l%&vg,  the  fish. 

Dual. 
N.  A.  V. 


Singular. 

N.  tyft-vg 
G.  i%&-vog 
D.  iyfi-m 
A.  iy&-vv 
V.  ^#-v 

So  6  /?oi5?,  the  ox,     G. 


Plural. 
]S[.  wty-vEg 

G.  D.  .   D.  IT&-VGI 

A.  i%&-vag 
V.  iyfi-vBg 

N.  V.  Plural,  p6eg,  contr. 
A.      "      fioag,    " 


§37.  THIRD  DECLENSION.  47 

131.  —  5.  Comparatives  in  cov  reject  v  in  the  ac- 
cusative singular,  and  in  the  nominative,  accusative, 
and  vocative  plural,  and  then  contract  the  concur- 
rent vowels  ;  as, 

better. 


Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

M.  &  F.  M.  &  F.  M.  &  F. 


N. 

G. 

D. 

A.  fiskii-ova,  -oa,  -co 

V.  fclri-ov 


N.  A.  V.  > 
Bekri-ovs 
G.  D. 


N.  fielri-oveg,  -oeg,  -ovg 

G.  foetoi-ovcov 

D.  fiefai-oGi 

A.  fietoi-ovagy  ~oag,  -ovg 


V.  fietoi-oveg,  -oeg  -ovg 


.  A.  V.  Plural,  Neuter,  fefati-ova,  -oa,  -co. 

132.  —  6.  The  nominative  contracted,  is  then  de- 
clined regularly;  as, 

sag,       spring,    by  contraction    ^,       G.  foog,     D.  fai,  &c. 
laag,     a  stone,  iag,     G.  kaog,     D.  iai,  &c. 

133.  —  065.  2.  When  vowels  concur  in  the  oblique  cases  after 
the  contraction  of  the  nominative,  they  are  moreover  contracted 
in  the  usual  way  ;  thus,  'HQOtd&fa  Hercules,  is  contracted  into 
HQaxkqg,  and  then  declined  and  contracted  as  follows  : 

N.  'jH()cwd-//£, 

G.  !if0K&-60?,  contr. 

D. 

A. 

V'r 
. 

134.  —  7.  In  adjectives,  the  masculine  and.  femi- 
nine, in  the  oblique  cases,  assume  the  contraction 
of  the  neuter;  thus, 

fM&iTOfie,  made  of  honey. 

Norn,  [tshr-oeig  [ishr-oecGo,  pehr-oev 

contr.  [t&ir-ovg  [tehz-ovGGa  pshr-ovv 

Gen.    ftehr-ovvrog         fishr-ovaff^g         pehr-ovvrog,  <fec. 

TCflri^ig^  honoured. 

Nom.  tip-fag 


contr.  tip-fig  ti[A-ij(j(ja 

Gen. 


THIRD  DECLENSION.. 


§  38,  39 


135.— §38.  WORDS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION  TO 
BE  DECLINED  AND  CONTRACTED. 

(N.  B.  The  following  method  of  practising  on  these  exercises  will 
direct  the  student -in  his  preparation.  E.  g.  tvaefttfq — Form  the  genitive  • 
— -give  the  rule ; — decline ; — what  cases  contract  the  concurrent  vowels? — 
give  the  rule ;— -decline  and  contract,  giving  the  rule  for  each  contraction. 
This  exercise  should  be  continued  till  the  student  is  perfectly  ready  and 
at  ease  in  the  whole  process.) 


pious, 
j  better. 
6rd%vg,  a  spike  of  corn. 
aQSiwv,  more  excellent. 
vopevg,  a  shepherd, 
cpeidco,  parsimony, 
g,  old  age. 

Achilles. 
,  excellent, 
true. 
pvg,  a  mouse. 
[ASQog,  apart, 
nleiov,  more. 


a  painter. 
Pericles. 


i%ti"vg,  a  fish. 


more. 
aazv,  a  city. 
qag,  the  morning. 
(Ja&vg,  deep. 

better. 
persuasion. 
sweet. 
a  husband. 
custom. 
a  horn. 


aldwg,  modesty. 
nzQag,  a  limit, 
vsfyog,  a  wall, 
dgvg,  an  oak. 

,  a  murderer. 
,  impudent, 
a  mountain, 
diction. 
,  old. 
]  indigent. 

Diodes. 
STtog,  a  word. 

a  runner. 


136.— §39.  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

1.  Some  nouns  have  one  gender  in  the  singular,  and  another 
in  the  plural ;  as, 

(1.)  *O  dttyQog,  the  chariot-seat;  o  po%k6g,  the  lever;  b  xcu 
v\  TdgraQog,  Tartarus;  b  TQa%rjhog,  the  neck;  o  fieGpog,  the 
decree ;  o  vwvog,  the  back ;  b  EQerpog,  the  oar ;  b  Qvyog,  the 
yoke,  are  neuter  in  the  plural;  as,  ra  diyQa,  &c.  The  three 
last  have  also  neuter  forms  in  the  singular,  as,  rb  vwrov,  &c.,  but 
with  a  variation  of  meaning. 

(2.)  eO  decpog,  the  bond  ;  b  hv%vog,  the  lamp  ;  b  xvxhog,  the 
circle  ;  b  [MjQog,  the  thigh ;  b  Gtzog,  corn ;  b  ata&fiog,  the  sta- 
tion ;  have  both  a  masculine  and  neuter  form  in  the  plural ;  as, 
ol  dsGpoi,  and  TO,  dec  pa,  <fec. 

(3.)  (H  x&ev&og,  the  way,  has  at  xslev&oi  and  ra  xe'hv&a. 

(4.)   To  GtdSiov,  the  stadium,  has  ol  GtdSioi,  and  va  arddia. 

(5.)  rvvi],  a  woman ;  bdog,  a  way ;  no  fag,  a  city ;  /£^,  a 
hand,  feminines,  have  TOO  yvvawz,  rco  6#co,  roo  Ttb^ie,  and  Tea 
in  the  nominative  and  accusative  dual. 


§39.  THIRD  DECLENSION.  4:9 

2.  Some  have  more  than  one  declension ;  thus, 

(1.)  Some  are  of  the  1st  and  2d,  as,  ?/  GTKydvrj,  and  6  (rre'qpa- 
vog,  a  crown; — some,  of  the  1st  and  3d,  as,  McoGqg,  -ov ;  and 
MwGsvg,  -ecog,  Moses.  2d  and  3d,  as,  TO  ddxQvov,  -ov,  and  to 
ddxQV,  -vog  ;  paQTvyog,  -ov,  and  pdQTVQ,  -VQog,  a  witness. 

(2.)  Some  have  more  than  one  declension,  in  the  oblique 
cases,  from  one  form  of  the  nominative ;  thus,  Qdtyg,  gen.  -ov 
1st,  and  -TITOS  3d,  Tholes ;  JJQrjg,  -ov  1st,  and  -sog  and  -qTog 
3d,  Mdrs  ;  6  and  TO  GxoTog,  darkness  ;  o%og,  a  chariot ;  &eog, 
mercy ;  Tdqi%og,  pickle ;  oGGog,  an  eye ;  have  -ov  the  2d,  and 
-eog  the  3d  ;  OGGog  is  used  mostly  in  the  dual,  ocas  &c.  3d,  and 
G.  and  D.  plural  OGGCOV,  oGGOig,  2d. 

(3.)  Some  have  the  forms  of  different  declensions,  in  certain 
cases,  though  not  regularly  declined  through  all  the  cases ;  thus, 
1st  and  3d  in  the  ace.  sing.  drftioGdlvrig,  ace.  -TIV  and  -ea,  De- 
mosthenes ;  Jtcoxoar^,  Socrates,  ace.  ^coxqaTqv  and  -8 a ;  <p,x?/, 
fortitude,  gen.  -qg  (1st),  dat.  -i  (3d) ;  vGfuvr],  a  battle,  dat.  vcrp- 
VTJ  and  vGfiim  (1st  and  3d) ;  dvdQdnodov,  a  slave,  2d,  dat.  pi.  dv- 
dQanodsGGi,  3d,  Horn. ;  y&wg  o,  laughter,  G.  y«lcoTO£,  aco  y&&- 
Ta  and  ye/Lcoy,  after  the  Attic  form  of  the  2d  declension  (88). 

(4.)  Feminine  nouns  in  w,  and  cog,  of  the  third  declension, 
have  generally  the  form  of  the  second  as  if  from  og,  in  the  dual 
and  plural,  when  their  meaning  is  such  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
used  in  these  numbers. 

3.  Some,  from  one  form  of  the   nominative,  have  different 
forms  in  the  oblique  cases,  in  the  same  declension;  thus,  TiyQig, 
a  tiger,  has  -tog  and  -tdog ;  08{Mg,  Justice,  has  -idog,  -trog,  and 
-iGTog ;  XaQcov,  Charon,  has  -cwog  and  ovTog ;  yoVv,  a  knee,  and 
£o£V,  a  spear,  have  -vog  and  -aTog;  %Q<ng,  %QG)Tog,  and  %QOvg, 
XQoog,  the  skin,  have  two  forms  of  the  nominative,  as  well  as  of 
the  oblique  cases,  both  of  the  3d. 

4.  Some  appear  to  form  the  oblique  cases  from  obsolete  nomi- 
natives ;  as,  tjTzaQ,  a  liver ;  ruictQ,  a .  day  ;  e?daQ,  food  ;  cpQeag, 
a  well ;  GTS'CIQ,  fat ;  xaoJ/ao,  a  head  ;  dkeicpaQ,  ointment  ;   ds- 
keaQ,  a  bait ;  ovsiaQ,  a  benefit ;  ov^ao,  fatness  ;  vdeog,  water  ; 
(7XG3O,  dirt ;  yovv,  the  knee  ;  doQV,  a  spear,  have  the  genitive  in 
-aTog,  as  if  from  nominatives  in  ag ;  thus,  faaTog,  vdaTog,  yova- 
Tog.     Ovg,  an  ear,  coTog ;  ydXa,  milk,  ydhcwTog  ;  yvvti,  a  woman, 
yvvawog,  voc.  yvvai ;  'IqGovg,  gen.  ov,  dat.  ov ;  ace.  ovV  ;  voc.  ov. 

5.  Some  are  indeclinable,  i.  e.  have  no  change  of  termination 
in  the  different  cases ;  such  as, 

(1.)  Names  of  letters;  as,  TO  dtya,  TOV  dlya,  &c.  (2.)  The 
cardinal  numbers  from  TTSVTS  to  «xaroV.  (3.)  Poetic  nouns  which 

3 


50  THIRD  DECLENSION.  §  40,  41. 

have  lost  the  last  syllable  by  apocope ;  as,  rb  da,  for  dapa.  (4.) 
Foreign  names  which  are  not  susceptible  of  Greek  inflexions;  as, 
o  ^ad,  rov 


137.— §  40.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 

1.  Some  nouns  have  no  plural;  as,  di]Q,air;  TIVQ>  fire ;  ehaiov, 
o?7  ;  yjj,  earth  ;  aldwg,  shame  ;  alg,  salt. 

2.  Some  have  no  singular;    as,  akcpira,  victuals;   Jl&fjvat, 
Athens;  oveiQara,  dreams  ;  aitd  the  names  of  festivals ;  as,  IIa~ 
rad-foaia,  Panathencea. 

3.  Some  occur  in  one  case  only,  and  are  called  monoptotes; 
as,  oo  ray,   0  friend,  ea  Ttonoi,  0  gods  ;  rb  ocpekog,  the  advan- 
tage. 

4.  Some  have  only  two  cases  (diptotes) ;  as,  nom.  1%,  ace.  \iv, 
a  lion;  nom.  Zevg,  voc.  Zsv9  Jupiter  ;  rb  wag,  the  vision;  nom. 
and  ace. 

5.  Some  have  only  three  (triptotes)',  as,  nom.  paQrvg,  a  wit- 
ness, ace.  paQrvv,  dat.  plur.  paQivGi. 

6.  The  Poets  sometimes  by  apocope  (40-6th)  cut  off  the  final 
letter  or  syllable  from  a  word;    as,  xaQti  for  X(zg3?0f>  a  head. 
Such  words  are  then  indeclinable  (136-5)» 


§  41.  NOUNS  OF  PECULIAR  SIGNIFICATION. 

138.  —  Some  nouns  have  peculiar  significations,  according  to 
their  terminations  ;  as, 

1.  Masculine  Patronymics,  (53-1,  1st)  commonly  in  dqg  or 
(ov  ;  as,  nqfavg,  Peleus,  Ileletdqg,  Pelides,  or  the  son  of  Pele- 
us  ;  KQOVOS,  Saturn,  KQWIOW  or  Kj>or8h]g9  the  son  of  Saturn. 

2.  Feminine  Patronymics,  commonly  in  lag  and  ig,  inj  and 
towy  ;  as,  yfyrcoi'dg  and  ./Jqrm't'g,  from  liqrco,  Latona  ;  Jt 

from  JUdcrog  ;  Nqivq  from  NqSvg  ;  ^IxiGicovr]  from 


Giog,     c. 

3.  Gentile  Nouns,  (53-1,  2d)  commonly  in  qg9  og,  or  ev$, 
masculine  ;  and  a,  ag,  or  ig,  feminine  ;  as,  £%afrq9  Sparta, 
^TiaQndrrjg,  a  Spartan;  ^aftdQSia.,  Samaria,  2&p&Q&ti$9  a 
woman  of  Samaria.  But  many  of  these  are  declined  as  regular 
adjectives. 


§42.  THE   ARTICLE.  51 

4.  Diminutives,  (53-2,  3d)  commonly  in  ia,  IQV,  /.<rxo£,  or  'kog ; 
as,  naxi'ii),  a  father,  rraiQtfiwr,  a  little  father  (a  term  of  endear- 
ment) ;    nalg,   a  boy  or  girl,  xcudiov,  a  little  boy  or  girl,  nai- 
dtay.t],  a  young  daughter  ;  fVjoo^,  love,  SQcoivkog,  a  little  lover. 

5.  Amplifaatives,  (53-2,  4th)  commonly  in  pa,  or  coy;   as, 
o?xo£,  a  house,  oixqpa,  a  large  building  ;  &QaGvg,  bold,  i^ctjcof, 
a  bully. 

6.  Verbal  Nouns.     From  the  first  root  of  the  verb  (209-4), 
are  formed  three  nouns  of  different  terminations  and  signification, 
indicating  respectively  the  thing  done,  the  doing,  and  the  dwr  ; 
as  follows, 

Verb.          1  Root.         Ter.  Derivative. 

-pa  Tiofypa  a  poem 

-Gig  noiTjGlg  the  art  of  poetry 

note,            -iqg  Ttotriit'ig  a  poet 


-pa        TtQay^a  a  deed 

-Gig        TtQafyg,  44-7        action  or  doing 

*TW  1  43-2  a  doer 

X7>/£,   f 


or  -iri$ 


;§42.  THE  ARTICLE. 

139. — The  article  is  an  adjective  word  of  three 

fenders,  and  irregular  in  the  nominative  singular. 
Q  the  oblique  cases,  the  masculine  and  the  neuter 
gender  are  of  the  second  declension ;  the  feminine 
is  of  the  first.     It  wants  the  vocative,  and  is  thus 
declined : 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 


N.  //       1 

G.  iov    itjg    lov 
D.  TCO     irj     ify 


A.  lov 


K,A- 
id       ico 

G.  D. 
lalv     low 


a         i 
iwv     icor      icov 


N".  ol 

G. 

D.  loTg    laig 

A.  lovg    lag      id 


1-40.  —  OBSERVATIONS. 


1.  The  Greeks  spoke  definitely,  by  placing  the  article  before 
the  substantive;  indefinitely,  by  omitting  it  or  prefixing  the  pro- 
noun n'g',  as,  6  avftQcoTzog,  the  man  ;  av&QcoTiog,  a  man  ;  or  ilg 
any  man. 


52  THE   ADJECTIVE.  §43,  44. 

2.  In  grammar  and  lexicography,  the  article  is  used  techni- 
cally, to  distinguish  the  gender  of  nouns  (58,  Obs.  1). 

3.  The  enclitic  de  annexed  to  the  article  through  all  its  cases, 
gives  it  the  force  of  the  pronoun  "  this  ;  "  as,  ode,  ?jds,  rode,  this, 
he,  she,  it ;  Gen.  rovds,  trjode,  rovds,  &c.     In  Homer  and  the 
other  old  Epic  writers,  the  article  itself  is,  with  few  exceptions, 
used  in  this  sense. 

4.  The  article  6,  ?/,  to,  is  sometimes  used  as  a  relative.   (See 
186-2.) 

141. — Note.  The  article  6,  3],  to,  heing  commonly  placed  before  a 
noun,  is  by  some  grammarians  called  the  prepositive  article,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  relative  pronoun  oq,  77,  o,  which,  from  being  generally 
placed  after  the  noun  to  which  it  refers,  they  call  the  postpositive  arti- 
cle. 


142.— §43.  DIALECTS  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

Singular. 

M.  and  N.  Fern. 

N.  o          to  //  D.  a 

G.  tov     A.  I.  P.  roio     D.  tco,tsv  P.  rsco         t?ig  D.  tag 

D.  top      I.  T€(p  vy  D.  ta 

A.  rov       76  vrjv  D.  vdv 

Plural, 

M.  and  N.  Fern. 

N.  ol        D.  ioi  neut.  ra  al      D.  tat 

G.  rwv     I.    tSGW  t&v    D.  rciv  JE>.  tdwv 

D.  rolg    D.  &  I.  TOIGI    I.  TS'OIGI         roug  D.  &  I.  raTai,  tyai 

P.  voided  and 
A.  rov^    D.  ro£ 


§  44.  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

143. — An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  a 
substantive;  as,  dya&og  avr]Q,  a  good  man; 
pia  TJ/USQCC,  one  day. 

A  noun  is  "  qualified"  by  an  adjective,  when  the  object  named 
is  thereby  described,  limited,  or  distinguished  from  other  things 
of  the  same  name. 


§45. 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  DECLENSIONS. 


53 


1.  The  ACCIDENTS  of  the  adjective   are  gender,  number,  and 
case  ;  and  in  most  adjectives  also  comparison. 

2.  Adjectives  in  Greek,  as  well  as  Latin,  indicate  the  gender, 
number,  and  case,  by  the  termination ;  as,  xcd-o£  masc.,  xccA-^ 
fern.,  xwA-o?  neuter,  &c. 

6.  Participles  have  the/orm  and  declension  of  adjectives,  while 
in  time  and  signification,  they  belong  to  the  verb. 

4.  Some  adjectives  denote  each  gender  by  a  different  termina- 
tion in  the  nominative,  and  consequently  have  three  terminations. 
Some  have  one  form  common  to  the  masculine  and  feminine,  and 
are  adjectives  of  two  terminations  ;  and  some  are  adjectives  of 
one  termination,  which  is  common  to  the  masculine  and  feminine ; 
such  want  the  neuter. 

5.  In  adjectives  of  three  terminations,  the  feminine  is  always 
of  the  first  declension.     In  all  adjectives,  the  masculine  is  always 
of  the  second  or  third;  and  the  declension  of  the  neuter,  is  alway> 
the  same  with  that  of  the  masculine. 


§45.  REGULAR  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AND 
SECOND  DECLENSIONS. 

144. — 1.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  de- 
clensions have  the  masculine  always  in  0£,  the 
feminine  always  in  77  or  #,  and  the  neuter  always 
in  ov]  thus, 

g,  beautiful. 

Plural,     t 

N.  x#Z-o/     "tu    -d 
G.  xak-cov    -cov   -cov 
D.  xcd-oig    -aig  -01$ 
A.  xctk-ovg   -dg    -d 
V.  xaA-o/      -at     -d 


Dual. 
N.  A.  V. 
xaA-eo     -a      -co 

G.  D. 
xak-olv  -cuv  -oiv 


Singular. 

N.  y.a'L-og  -t]  -ov 

G.  xccA-ov    -rig  -ov 

D.  xaA-cp    -rj  -cp 

A.  xa^-o^   -?/y  -oy 

V.  »oX-e     -//  -o*' 

Thus  decline  dya&og,  good ;  xaxog,  bad;  qp£0?,  friendly ; 
[takaxog,  soft;  favxog,  white;  drfiog,  manifest;  anakog,  tender , 
teQTTvog,  pleasant. 

145. — 2.  But  os  pure,  and  po£,  have  <z  in  the 
feminine ;  as, 


FIRST   AND   SECOND   DECLENSIONS. 


§45. 


Singular. 
N.  QaSi-og     -a 
G.  ()adi-ov     -ag 
D.  Qttdi-cp 
A.  pddt-ov 
V. 


-or 
-ov 


-a 

-av 

-a 


-ov 
-ov 


Singular. 

N.  cpav£Q-6g       d 
ag 
a 
av 
d 


ov 
ov 


G.  cpavtQ-ov 

D.  cpav£Q-cp 

A.  cpav€Q-6v 

V.  cpavsQ-s 

The  dual  and  plural  terminations  are  the  same  as  in 
But  the  rules  for  the  accents  in  the  masculine  and  neuter  (84), 
and  in  the  feminine  (72),  must  be  carefully  observed. 

146. — Exc.  The  terminations  oog,  and  sometimes  eog,  espe- 
cially in  adjectives  denoting  matter  and  colour,  retain  t\ ;  as, 
oydoog,  the  eighth,  oydor] ;  okoog,  pernicious,  oAo// ;  g$v03Q?f  gold- 
en, XQvaeq ;  cpoivt'xsog,  purple,  (poinx&j.  Except  where  Q  stands 
before  the  vowel;  as,  dftgoog,  frequent,  afigoa',  aQyvQZog,  silver, 


147. — 3.  The  Attics  often  decline  adjectives  in 
oz,  especially  derivatives  and  compounds,  by  the 
common  gender,  without  the  feminine  termina- 
tion ;  thus, 

d&dvarog,  d&dvarog,  d&dvarov,  immortal. 
Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 


N.  d&dvar-og  -og  -ov 
G.  dtiavdr-ov  -ov  -ov 
D.  ddavaT-cp  -cp  -09 
A.  d\)dvar-ov  -ov  -ov 
V.  d&dvar-s   -s    -ov 

N.  A.  V. 
d&avdr-co    -co   -co 
G.  D. 
d&avdz-ow  -oiv  -oiv 

N.  K^dvar-oi    -01    -a 
G.  a&av&T-cov  -cov  -cov 
D.  d&avdr-oig  -oig  -oig 
A.  d\)avdr-ovg  -ovg  -a 
V.  d&dvat-oi     -01    -a 

Adjectives  of  the  common  gender  are  often  expressed  thus : 

6,  ?/  d&dvarog,  TO  d&dvarov. 
Tov9  ttjg,  TOV  a&avarov,  &c. 

In  the  same  manner  decline — 
M.  &  F.  1ST. 

ftcutcpihog  nafMfikop  from  nav  and 

adixog  adixov  from  dixq 

ovQavwg  ovQaviov  from  ov^avog 

Ofiogog  OIAOQOV  from  ofj.6g  and  OQog 

Note.  Though  this  form  of  declension  is  most  used  by  the  Attic 
writers,  it  is  not  confined  to  them.     Instances  of  it  occur  iii  Homer. 


§46.  FIRST  AND  THIRD  DECLENSIONS.  55 

§  46.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  THIRD 
DECLENSIONS. 

148. — The  masculine  and  neuter  of  all  adjec- 
tives not  ending  in  og,  are  of  the  third  declension. 
The  regular  terminations  of  these  are — 

M.  R  N. 

1.  ag  awa  ccv 

2.  6/£  S66a  SV 

3.  v<;  €ta  v 

Adjectives,  -so  far  as  they  are  of  the  third  declension,*  are  ac- 
cented the  same  as  nouns,  according  to  the  rules,  94. 

149. — 1.  Example  of  an  Adjective  in  a$,  awa, 
ccv  /  jushccg,  black. 

Singular. 

N.  n&-ag  psl-cuva 

G.  pek-avog 
D.  psh-an 
A.  psk-ava 
V.  ii£k-cw 

Dual. 
K.  A.  V. 

G.  D.  [teh-dvow  fish-awou? 

Plural. 

N.  V.  ii&-aveg  p,s),-airai 

G.  iizk-dv&v  n&-GLWtov 

D.  pe7.-a<Ji,  n&-aivai$  fish-aoi,  46-16. 

A.  i4£k-ava,$  iisL-aivag  '  \i£k-vLvu, 

150. — 2.  Example  of  an  Adjective  in  sig,  SGGCC 
ev  /  %cc()iet$i  comely. 

Singular. 

N.  %aQi-£ig  %aQi-£6aa  XaQ^~er 

G.  xa&i-errtig  XaQ1'  ways  yuQi-wrog,  100—2, 

D. 
A. 

V. 


56  FIRST  AND  THIRD  DECLENSIONS. 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  %aoi-8VT8 
G.  D. 


rt,  47-18. 


146. 


Plural. 
N.  V.  %aQi-8vr8g  %aQi-8GGcu 

G.    VOQIr&rt&f  %apl-86Ga)V 

Df 
.   %aQl-8lGl 

A.  %aQi-8vrag 

151. —  Ob's.  According  to  Buttmann,  adjectives  in  sig  (but  not 
participles)  have  8Gi  and  not  eiGi9  in  the  dative  plural.  Prof.  An- 
thon  adopts  the  same  termination.  When  so  used*  it  must  be  re- 
garded as  an  exception  to  the  general  rule,  §  6,  18. 

152. — 3.  Example  of  an  Adjective  in  vg,  tia,  v  ; 
qSv£y  sweet. 

Singular. 


contr.  8i 


G<  t\  / 
.  t]0-8og 

D.  qd-si,  contr.  -81  ?jd-8ia 

A.  tjd-vv,  or  -«a,  102-2.  ifi-eiav 
V.  tfi4 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  Jjd-& 
G.  D.  ijd-soiv 

Plural. 
N.  V.  qd-s'sg,  contr.  eTg          vfi-*ict4         qd-ea,  not  contr.  129. 

G.    fjd-EQW  ifi-SlOW  7]d-8G)V 

A.  yd-sag,  contr.  8ig         T]d-8ictg        f]d-8a,  not  contr. 
After  the  same  manner  decline — 
1. 


rak-ag 


-aiva, 


2. 


-8GGa 
-8GGa 


S. 

favx-vg 

-sla 

-v 

tiuiG-vg 

-8ia 

-t; 

/ 

pccp-vg 

-Sl(X> 

-v 

fiav-vg 
6%-vg 

-8ia 
-8ia 

-V 
-V 

§47.  DECLENSION   OF  PARTICIPLES.  57 

§47.  DECLENSION  OF  PARTICIPLES. 

153.—  Participles  are  declined  like  adjectives  of  three  termi- 
nations :  those  of  the  middle  and  passive  in  og,  are  inflected 
throughout  like  xaAo?,  144.  Of  others,  the  feminine  always  fol- 
lows the  terminations  of  the  first  declension,  and  the  masculine 
and  neuter,  those  of  the  third,  the  genitive  being  always  formed 
as  directed,  100,  Obs.  1.  The  terminations  of  these  are  as  foL 
lows  : 

M.          F.          N.  M.  F.  K 

1.  -QW       -ovGa      -ov          Gen.  -owog      -ovGyg       -ovrog,  <fec. 

2.  -coV       -ovGa       -ov  -ovrog      -ovGqg       -ovrog,  &c. 

3.  -ag       -aGa        -av  -avrog      -aGqg        -avrog,  <fec. 

4.  -cog       -VIM         -off  -orog       -viag         -orog,  &c. 

5.  -slg       -siGCf,        -iv  -wzog       -eiGqg        -e'vrog,  <fec. 

6.  -ovg      -OVGU,       -ov  -ovrog      -ovGiyg       -ovrog,  &c. 

7.  -vg        -VGO,         -vv  -vvrog      -vGtjg         -vvrog,  &c. 

Of  these  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  are  declined  as  examples  ;  thus, 

154.  —  1.  TVTHCOV,  having  sfcuck.     (2  Aor.  Act.) 

Singular. 

N.  VVTI-WV  rvn-ovGa  tvn-ov 

G.  TVTz-ovrog  WTt-ovGrig  rvTZ-ovrog 

D.  ivTi-ovn  vvn-ovGYi  rvn-ovn 

A.  rvTi-ovia,  ivn-ovGav  rvn-ov 

V.    rV7l-OW  TV7Z-OVGO, 


Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  tva-ovte,  tvTi-ovGd  ivn-ovrs 

G.  D.  rvn-ovroiv  TVTI-OVGCUV  tvn-ovvoiv 

<  ^     Plural. 

N.  WTt-ovreg  rvn-ovGat  rv7r-6vra 

G.  tvn-Qvrmv  VVTI-OVGWV  tvn-ovzwv 

D.    tVTt-OVGl  TVTZ-OVGCUg  rV7l-OVGl,4:^-l8 

A.  rvft-ovrag  rvn-ovGag  vvn-ovra 

V.  tvTi-ovzeg  ivn-ovGai  rvn-ovra 

In  this  manner  are  declined  all  participles  which  have  v  before 
rog  in  the  genitive  ;  also  the  adjectives  «ceoV  and  dexav.  When 
the  accent  of  the  nominative  is  on  the  penult,  it  remains  there, 
except  as  required  by  the  general  rules  (15  —  19). 


58  ADJECTIVES   OF   TWO   TERMINATIONS.  \ 

2.  Tvifjaz,  having  struck.     (1  Aor.  Act.) 

Singular. 


N.  rvipag 

G.  Tvifjavr-og 

D.  Tvipavt-i 

A.  rvipavr-a  rv\VaG-av  rvipav 

V.  vvtyag 


Dual. 

N".  A.  V.  rvWavr-s  rvibaG-a  vvibavr-e 

G.  D. 


Plural. 

N.  rvipavr-eg 

G.  tvibavT-wv 

D.  tvWa-Gi> 

A.  rvipavz-ag 

V.  vvtyavr-sg  rvtyaG-ai  rvtyavr-a 


In  like  manner  decline  the  adjective  nag,  naaa,  nav,  all. 

155, — 3.  T8Tvy>-cj£,  having  struck.    (JPerf.  Act.) 

Sinular. 


Singul 

N.  V.  rervcp-ag  -via  -og 

G.  i£TV(p~oTog  -viag  -otog 

D.  rervcp-oTt,  -via  -on 

A.  rervcp-ora  -vlav  -6g 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  rervcp-ore  -via  -ore 

G.  D.  Tsivty-orow  -viaiv  -OTOIV 

Plural. 

N.  V.  rsrvcp-orsg  -vlai  -or a 

G.  7£ri;g)-oroar  -vfdii^  -orcov 

D.  T£Tvcp-oGi  -viaig  -OGI,  44-8. 

A.  t£TV(p-6rag  -viag  -ora 

156. — The  participle  in  oo£,  after  a  Syncope  (267),  has  the 
nominative  and  vocative  oog,  coca,  ojg ;  G.  arog,  coGyg,  wrog,  &c. 


§48.  ADJECTIVES  OF  TWO   TERMINATIONS.  59 


§  48.  ADJECTIVES  OF  TWO  TERMINATIONS. 

157.  —  Many  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  have  but  one 
form  for  the  masculine  and  feminine,  and  are  therefore  said  to  be 
declined  according  to  the  common  gender.  They  are  declined 
throughout  like  nouns  of  the  third  declension,  of  the  same  termi- 
nation. The  regular  terminations  of  these  are  &v,  qv,  qg,  ig,  vg, 
and  ovg  (viz.  compounds  of  novg)  ;  and  they  form  the  neuter  ac- 
cording to  the  following  — 

158.  —  RULES. 

1.  Adjectives  of  the  common  gender  in  cw,  r\v, 

q$y  form  the  neuter  by  changing  the  long  vowel 
into  its  own  short  one  ;  thus, 

M.  and  F.  N. 

N.  owcpQow             GacpQov            prudent,  G.  Gto<pQov-og 

N.  aoQTjv                UQQW                male,  G.  S,QQEV    -og 

N.  a)*T]&rjg              akri&tg              true,  G.  c&q&s  -og 

So  also  some  in  COQ  ;  as, 
N.    ieah'rcof)  ledro    ;          G. 


Note.  But  tEQqv,  tender,  usually  has  the  feminine 
neuter  re  QSV. 

2.  Adjectives  of  the  common  gender  in  i$  and 
-«/£,  form  the  neuter  by  rejecting  g  ;  as, 
M.  and  F.  N. 


N.  ev%aQi$  €v%a,Qi  G. 

N.  adaxQvg  adaxQV  G.  dddxQV-og 

3.  Compounds  of  novg,  a  foot,  have  the  neuter 
in   ovv  ;  others  in  OVQ  have  the  neuter  in  ov  ;  as, 

M.  and  F.  N. 

N.  diTtovg,  dinovr,  G.  dtnod-og,  100-1. 

povodovg,         povodov,  povod-ovzog. 


Note.  It  is  probable  that  novq  was  originally  TTOOS;  whence 
N.  dlnoov,  contracted  dlnovq,  dinovv,  and  that  the  declension  was  after- 
wards changed  from  the  2d  to  the  3d,  as  was  done  also  in  yeAo;?,  and 

?,  from  the  ancient  yeAccoc,',  and  e^aocj. 


IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 


§48, 

159. — Examples  of  adjectives  of  the  common 
gender. 


1.  o,  f]  cco(pQcov,priident. 

2. 

6,  r]  dkr]&fo, 

true. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

N.    GCOtyQ-COV           -COV 

-ov 

K 

dtyft-'/jg      -t]g 

-sg 

G.  Gco<pQ-ovog     -ovog 

-ovog 

G. 

aL^ft-log    -log 

-log 

D.    GCOCpQ-OVl           -OVl 

-OVl 

D. 

ahf&-et      -si 

-si 

A.  GcocpQ-ova      -ova 

-ov 

A. 

atyft-sa      -sa 

-sg 

V.    GCO(pQ-OV            -OV 

-ov 

V. 

dtyft-sg       -sg 

-4? 

Dual. 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V. 

1ST.  A.  V. 

/ 

GCOCJ)Q-OVS          -OV8 

-OVS 

akqv-ss       -ss 

-ss 

G.    D. 

G.  D. 

GCOCfQ-OVOlV      -OVOIV 

-OVOIV 

dl,^-soiv    -loiv 

-loiv 

Plural. 

Plural 

N.  GcocpQ-ovsg  '  -ovsg 

-ova 

K 

akij&-lsg     -ssg 

-la 

G.    GCOCfQ-OVCOV      -OVCOV 

-ovcov 

G. 

dlyti-scov    -s'cov 

-scov 

D.    GCQtyQ-OGl          -OGl 

-OGl 

D. 

akri^-loi     -S'GI 

-S'GI 

A.  Gco<po-ovag     -ovag 

-ova 

A. 

o&rfo-lag    -lag 

-la 

V.  GcotyQ-ovsg      -ovsg 

-ova 

V. 

d^^-s'sg     -ssg 

-la 

3.  €v%a()is,  acceptable. 

Singular. 

N.      sv%aQ-ig      -ig 
G.      8v%aQ-irog  -irog 
D.      sv%aQ-in     -in 

-ira 

-iv 


-i 

-irog 

-in 

-i,  or 

-i 

-i 


A.  |  «J 

v. 1  f; 

Dual. 
N.  A.  V. 
sv%dQ-irs         -irs      -trs 

G.  D. 
sv%aQ-iroiv      -iroiv   -iroiv 

Plural. 

N.  sv%aQ-irsg     -irsg     -ira 
G.  Ev%aQ-itcov    -ircov    -ircov 

D.    SV%d()-lGl  -IGl         -IGl 

A,  sv%dQ-irag     -irag    -ira 
V.  sv%dQ-irsg      -irsg     -ira 


4.  aSaxQvg,  tearless. 

Singular. 

N.  adaxQ-vg        -vg  -v 

G.  dddxQ-vog      -vog  -vog 

D.  dddxQ-vi        -vi  -vi  • 

A.  ddaxQ-vv        -vv  -v 

V.  adaxQ-v          -v  -v 

Dual. 
1ST.  A.  V. 
dddxQ-vs  -vs 

G.  D. 
ddaxQ-voiv  -voiv 

Plural. 

N.  dddxQ-veg      -vsg 
G.  ddaxQ-vow     -vcov     -vcoy 
D.  dddxQ-vGi      -VGI       -VGI 
A.  dddxQ-vag     -vag 
V.  dddxQ-vsg      -vsg 


-vs 


-votv 


~va 


-va 
-va 


§49.  ADJECTIVES  TO   BE   DECLINED.  61 


Note.  In  these  examples,  oJU^hfc  and  adaxgvq  are  declined  without 
contracting.  The  pupil  may  contract  the  concurrent  rowels  (120-2,  and 
130),  and  make  the  necessary  changes  in  the  accents. 


§  49.  IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

160.— '-Every  adjective  not  ending  in  some  of 
the  regular  terminations  already  mentioned,  is  ir- 
regular,— wants  the  neuter  gender,— and  is  de- 
clined like  a  noun  of  the  third  declension  ;  thus, 

N.  6,  r\        aQrta%, 

G.  rov,         rtjg    dgnayog,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  genitive  and  dative  of 
such  adjectives  in  the  neuter.  Sometimes  the  neuter  is  supplied 
by  a  derivative  form  in  OP  ;  thus,  aQrtaxvwov  is  used  as  the  neu- 
ter of  aQ7ta<* ;  j3AaxT«xof,  as  the  neuter  of  /:&<££,  &c. 

Exc.  1.  ixow  and  afc'xaw  (by  syncope  «XOM>),  are  declined  with 
three  genders,  like  participles  (154-1) ;  thus, 

N.    8X-COV  £X-OV<7«,  £X-OV, 

G.  ex-6vrog,  ex-over^,  ex-ovrog,  &c. 


Exc.  2.  Meyag,  great ;  and  nol-vg^  many,  are  irregular  in  the 
nominative  and  accusative  singular.  The  other  cases  are  regu- 
larly formed  from  the  ancient  nominatives  nsydkog  and 
of.  the  second  declension ;  thus, 

Singular.  Singular. 

M.  F.  N.  M.  F.          N. 


pag 


noUg      noKki]      nokv 
Ttolkov 
nokkq) 
no'kv 


Dual.  Dual. 


G. 
D. 
A. 


1ST.  A.  V.  p&yaka),  peyaka,  p,ey(x,).G).  \      TTO^CO,  TtoUkd,  ^oAAca,  <fec. 
through  the  dual  and  plural,  as  in  xcdo£,  144. 

Note.  Homer  and  other  poets  inflect  Ttolvq  regularly,  Gen.  7to).ioa, 
Dat.  Ttotei,  <fec.  It  was  afterwards  changed,  in  those  cases  in  which  it 
would  not  he  distinguished  from  the  same  cases  of  Ttohq,  a  city. 


62 


NUMERALS. 


§50,51. 


Obs.  2.  Some  substantives  in  ag  and  qg,  inflected  in  the  first 
declension,  are  called  by  grammarians,  adjectives;  as,  ttj^^um/?, 
an  insolent  man  ;  TQavpariag,  a  wounded  man ;  but  they  are 
really  independent  of  any  other  substantives  in  construction.  The 
same  observation  may  be  applied  to  several  other  words,  called 
adjectives  of  one  termination. 


§  50.  ADJECTIVES  TO  BE  DECLINED. 


bad. 

miserable. 
heavy. 
tender. 


^ 

rak-ag,  -aiva,  -ar, 
,  -Eta,  -v, 
,  -qr,  -Er, 

fjg,  -?/£,  -eg,     pious. 
-ar,  -cor,  or,     better. 
eig,  -EGGCC,  -Er,  honoured. 
adtx-og,  -og,  -or,       unjust. 
a£i-og,  -a,  -or,          worthy. 
cpd.o7iaTQ-ig,  -ig,  -i,  patriotic. 
7tol.v7i-ov<;,-ovg,-ov'Vtmany  -footed, 


o,  ] 


happy. 

,  -Eia,  -v,        deep. 
,  -Mr,  -ovy      greater. 


W/~€'£>  -£ff<T«>  -w,  sonorous. 
cpofisQ-og,  -d,  -or,    formidable. 
<x.ya&-6g,  -?/,  -or,     good, 
o,  //  [iaxQ6%EiQ,        long-handed. 
Ta%-vg,  -Eia,  -v,       swift. 
xaJM-cav,  -cor,  -or,  more  beauti- 

<$ik-og,  -r{,  -or,  friendly. 

f^rt^-cor,  -cor,  -or,  mindful, 

ddp-ijg,  -j]g,  -£g,  unconquered 

o,  t]  tyvytig,  an  exile, 

favx-vg,  -sia,  -v  sweet. 

gadi-og,  -a,  -or,  easy, 

r,  -cor,  or,  wise. 


§51.  NUMERALS. 

161. — NUMEEAL  adjectives  are  those  which  sig- 
nify number.  In  Greek  they  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  Cardinal  and  Ordinal. 

1.  The  Cardinal  express   numbers  simply,  or 
how  many ;  as,  one,  two,  three,  &c. 

2.  The  Ordinal  denote  which  one  of  a  number; 
as,  first,  second,  third,  &c. 

Distributives  have  no  separate  form  in  Greek.  The  meaning 
of  these  is  expressed  by  the  cardinal  numbers,  sometimes  com- 
pounded with  ovr ;  as,  vvvdvo,  cvrrQEig,  &c. ;  bini,  terni ; — and 
sometimes  preceded  by  Hard,  ard,  &c. 


§51.  NUMERALS.          ,  63 

162. 1.    THE    CARDINAL    NUMBERS. 

1.  Elg,  one,  hae  the  singular  number  only,  and 
is  thus  declined : 

-VT-  ?  t  ff 

IN.  eig  f      [ua  w 

G.  svog  [uag  wog 

D.  svl  [ua  ivi 

A.  wa  [livLV  Iv 

In  like  manner  decline  the  two  compounds, 

ov8-ei'g,      ovde-pia,      ovd-w,         plur.  ov8-wegf      -splat,      -lvc&, 
prfi-sig,      [Midt-fiiaj      pqd-ev,  "      [M]8-weg,     -Epiat,      -sva. 

Obs.  1.  From  efe,  owe.  is  formed  the  adjective  freQog,  either,^ 
one,  other  ;  and  from  ovdstg,  prjdetg,  ^re  formed  ovdwegog,  pqde- 
rsoog,  neither. 

Obs.  2.  Elg  is  sometimes  used  for  the  ordinal  TZQWTOS,  as  in 
Matth.  28.  1 ;  Mark  16.  2.  This  is  usually  considered  a  Hebra- 
ism, but  it  is  sometimes  used  by  the  Greeks  also ;  Herod,  iv.  161, 
Thucyd.  iv.  115.  Also  in  Latin,  Cic.  Sen.  5  :  "  Uno  et  octoyesi- 
mo  anno? 

2.  dvoy,  two,  is  properly  dual ;  it  is  alike  in  all 
genders,  and  is  defective  in  the  plural ;  thus, 

Dual.  Plural. 

N.  A.  dvco  N.  A.  

G.  dvow,  Attic  dveiv  G.  ^00^ 

D.  dvoiv  D.  dval(v) 

Obs.  3.  z/vo,  two,  is  indeclinable ;  i.  e.  it  is  the  same  in  all 
genders  and  numbers ;  a^qpco,  both,  is  declined  like  dvco,  in  the 
dual. 

3.  TQSIS,  three,  and  T$GO&Qt$,  four,  are  plural 
only,  and  are  thus  declined : 


ig,  three. 


TQ£ig 
G.    VQIWV      VQUtiV      TQIWV 

D.  igtffi 

A. 


,  four. 


N.  T8G6aQeg 

G.    TSGGaQKW      TeGGCtQCOV 
D.    TtGGaQGl        rtGGttQGl 


A. 


T£GGaQag 


4.  The  Cardinal  numbers  from  nwrf-,  five,  to 
,  a  hundred^  are  indeclinable. 


64:  GREEK  NOTATION   OF  NUMBERS.  §52. 

5.  After  s^aror^  the  larger  numbers  are  regu- 
lar plural  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declen- 
sions; as, 

M.  F.  %K 

diaxoGiai  diaxoGia  two  hundred 

roiaxoGicu  tQiaxoGia  three  hundred 

yh.icu  %iha  a  thousand 

diG%thai  diG%lha  two  thousand 

(tvQiai  fivQia  ten  thousand 

diGfivQiat  diGpvQici  twenty  thousand 

Obs.  4.  In  the  composition  of  numbers,  either  the  smaller  pre- 
cedes, and  the  two  are  joined  by  xat ;  or  the  greater  precedes,  in 
which  case  the  xca  is  generally  omitted;  thus,  nivTz  xal  eixoGi, 
or  &XOGI  7t£VT8j  twenty-five ;  n^nTog  xal  sixoGtog,  or  sixoGrbg 
az'fiTzrog,  twenty-fifth.  When  three  numbers  are  reckoned  to- 
gether, the  greatest  comes  first,  and  so  on  in  succession,  with  the 
conjunction  xai ;  as,  v7fig  exarbv  xal  e'ixoGi  YMI  wrra,  a  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  ships. 

Obs.  o.  Instead  of  the  numbers  compounded  with  eight  or 
nine,  more  frequent  use  is  made  of  the  circumlocution  svog  (or 
fuae)  dlovtog,  &c. ;  thus,  v^g  pag  dtovGcu  SMOGI,  twenty  ships 
wanting  one,  i.  e.  nineteen  ships  ;  srea  dvav  ds'ovra  SMOGI,  twenty 
years  wanting  two,  i.  e.  eighteen  years. 


163. §52.    II.    OEDINAL   NUMBEES. 

The  ordinal  numbers  are  formed  from  the  cardinal.  All  un- 
der twenty,  except  second,  seventh,  and  eighth,  end  in  rog  ;  from 
twenty  upwards,  all  end  in  oGrog,  and,  in  their  inflection,  are  re- 
gular adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  ;  thus, 

n Q  cozy  TtQortov  first 

TtQOtSQa         TTQorsQOv  first  of  the  two) 

dsvzEQog  dsvvsQM       .    devteQOv  second 

kc.  third 


Obs.  1.  In  order  to  express  half,  or  fractional  numbers  in 
money,  measures,  and  weights,  the  Greeks  used  words  compound- 
ed of  ijiu,  half,  and  the  name  of  the  weight,  &c.  (^>a,  ofiokog, 
rdkavrov),  having  the  adjective  termination  ov,  tov,  alov,  append- 
ed to  it,  and  placed  before  the  ordinal  number,  of  which  the  half 


§53.  GREEK  NOTATION  OF  NUMBERS.  65 


is  taken  ;  as,  VQIZOV  imitaLavrov,  2  J  talents  ;  i.  e.  the  first  a  talent, 
the  second  a  talent,  the  third  a  half  talent,  and  so  of  others.  In 
like  manner  the  Latin  sestertius,  2J  asses  by  syncope  from  semis- 
tertius;  the  first  an  as,  the  second  an  as,  the  third  a  half  as  (ter- 
tius semis). 

From  this  must  be  distinguished  the  use  of  the  same  com- 
pounds in  the  plural,  preceded  by  the  cardinal  number  which,  in 
that  case,  mean  simply  so  many  half  talents;  thus,  tgia  ijpi- 
vdlavTa,  not  2£  talents,  but  three  half  talents,  or  one  and  a  half. 

Obs.  2.  From  the  ordinal  numbers  are  formed  numerals  in 
aiog,  expressing  "on  ivhat  day  ;"  as,  dsvrsQaiog,  on  the  second 
day  ;  tQiraiog,  on  the  third  day,  &c. 


§53.  THE  GREEK  NOTATION  OF  NUMBERS. 

164. — The  Greeks  used  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  three 
different  ways,  to  denote  numbers. 

1.  To  express  a  small  series  of 'numbers,  each  letter  was  reck- 
oned according  to  its  order  in  the  alphabet;  as,  #,  1,  ^,  2,  e,  5, 
co,  24.      In  this  manner  the  books  of  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odys- 
sey are  distinguished.     The  technical  syllable  HNT  (TIM),  will 
assist  the  memory  in  using  this  kind  of  notation ;  for  if  the  alpha- 
bet be  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  77  will  be  the  first  letter  of 
the  second  part,  that  is  7 ;  v,  of  the  third,  or  1 3 ;  and  r  of  the 
fourth,  or  19. 

2.  The  capital  letters  were  used,  in  denoting  larger  series  of 
numbers,  thus;  /,  1,  77 for  awre,  5,  A  for  dt'xa,  10,  TJfor  Hi-- 
xctrov,  100,  X  for  %lkioi,  1000,  and  M  for  pvQioi,  10,000.     A 
large  77  round  any  of  these  characters,  except  /,  denoted  five 
times  as  much  as  that  character  represented;  as,  \j\,  50;  \M\ 

'  for  50,000. 

3.  To  express  the  9  units,  the  9  tens,  and  the  9  hundreds,  the 
Greeks  divided  the  alphabet  into  three  parts ;  but,  as  there  are 
only  24  letters,  they  used  g',  called  STZiGqpov,  for  6;  fi,  called 
xoTina,  for  90 ;  and  Q>,  called  GapTil,  for  900.     In  using  this 
kind  of  notation,  the  memory  will  be  assisted  by  the  technical 
syllable  AIP\  that  is,  A',  denotes  1 ;  7',  10  ;  and  7y,  100.     It 
is  to  be  observed,  also,  that  all  the  numbers  under  1000,  are  de 
noted  by  letters  with  a  small  mark  like  an  accent,  over  them ; 
and  that  a  similar  mark  placed  under  any  letter,  denotes  that  it 
represents  so  many  thousands. 


66 


GREEK  NOTATION  OF  NUMBERS. 


§53. 


165. — TABLE   OF   NUMERALS. 


n 
& 


i 


y.a 


o 

ri 

5; 

-    G 
V 

y! 


ft 


ETTTCt 
OXTfii 


OXTWXCU&XCC 

fl'xocrt  tiq 


Cardinal. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
200 
300 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1,000 
2,000 
3,000 
4,000 
5,000 
6,000 
7,000 
8,000 
9,000 
10,000 
20,000 
50,000 
100,000 

Thus  the  number  1853  is  a,  co  /  /. 


ivvivjy.ovra 
exarov 


TtivtauG/lhot, 


Ordinal.  • 


exroq 


oydooq 
wvctToq 
dexaroq 
evdixaroq 


t-TtraxoG^OGToq 

.  OXTCty.OGl'OGTOq 


o  ydo  y,t,G/i>hoGToq 


§54.  COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.  67 

OTHER    CLASSES    OF    NUMERALS. 

166.  —  From  the  cardinal  numbers  are  formed  — 

1st.  The  Numeral  ao  verbs;  as,  dfg,  twice,  from  dvo',  TQI'$, 
thrice,  from  rQi-i^',  and  from  the  others,  by  adding  the  termina- 
tion x/£,  dxig,  or  r«x(v  ;  as,  rfGcjaydxig,  e£«x*£,  ffxoTerzax*£,  ybwr 
,  six  times,  a  hundred  times. 

2d.  Multiple  numbers  in  Tihoog,  contracted  7r>lo£>£  *  as,  &- 
,  two-fold;  TQiTtkooL,;  three-fold  ;  TSTQanl.oog,  four-fold. 

3d.  Proportionals  in  n^dtiiog  ;  as,  TQin^.dcio^j  three  times  as 
much  ;  i&gaalMinog*  f°ur  times  as  much. 

4th.  Substantives  in  «£,.  ado?,  wliich  express  the  mime  of  the 
several  numbers  ;  as,  pOfOft  Gen.  -ddog,  the  number  one,  unity  ; 
dt'ttt1',  the  number  two;  dtxtf?,  ^  number  ten;  ttxag,  the  num- 
ber twenty  ;  TQiaxdg,  me  number  thirty,  &c. 


The  substantive  numerals  are  commonly  employed  to  express 
the  higher  numbers;  thus,  ftixa  /<i>£*ct&?,  100,000;  twcbv  /Liv^tdd^,  a 
million.  Sometimes  the  smaller  numbers,  added  to  the  larger,  are 
likewise  expressed  by  substantives  ;  thus,  517,610,  Trtvr^y.ovra  pvQux,- 
tit<;  y.cci  fii>dt  /i,).i>dSf<;  if  ema,  zcti  7i(jb<j  txctTortafos  ti  y.al  d'etat;. 


5th.  The  Distributives,  answering  to  the  question,  in  how 
many  parts  ?  are  formed  in  %a  ;  as,  8i%ct,  Tgi^a,  t£TQa%a,  n£v- 
ia%u.  ;  in  two  parts,  in  three  parts,  <fec.,  and  connected  with 
these  are  such  adverbs  as,  TQiffli  trebly  -;  rQi%ovt  in  three  places,  &c. 

06s.  When  other  parts  of  speech  are  compounded  with  nu- 
merals, the  first  four  assume  the  following  forms,  viz.  :  povo-,  one  ; 
di.-,  two  ;  TQI-,  three  ;  TETQU-,  four  ;  as,  [A.OVOXSQCO*;,  diX€QG)$, 
TQifFOV£,  TtTQaTtovg,  one-horned,  two-horned,  three-footed,  four- 
footed. 


§  54.  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

167.  Adjectives  have  three  degrees  of  compari- 
son, the  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative. 

168.  The  Positive  expresses  a  quality  simply  ;  the  Compara- 
tive asserts  it  in  a  higher 'OT  lower  degree  in  one  object  than  in 
another,  or,  than  in  several  taken  together ;  and  the  Superlative, 
in  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  compared  with  several  taken  sep- 
arately ;  thus,  "  gold  is  heavier  than  silver ;  it  is  the  most  pre- 
cious of  metals."     Hence,  those  adjectives  only  can  be  compared 
whose  signification  admits  the  distinction  of  more  or  less. 


68  COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES.  §55. 

The  superlative  in  Greek,  as  in  Latin  and  English,  often  ex- 
presses only  a  very  high  degree  of  the  quality,  without  implying 
comparison,  and  may  be  called  the  superlative  of  eminence. 


§55.  GENERAL  RULE. 

169.  —  The  comparative  degree  is  formed  by 
adding  TZQOZ  to  the  positive  ;  and  the  superlative, 
by  adding  rarog  ;  thus, 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

pdxaQ  fiaxaQ-reQog  [iaxdo-ratog 

evvovg  svrovG-reQog  evvovG-rarog 

uaxovovg  xaxovovG-rsQog  xaxovova-tarog 


170.  —  SPECIAL   RULES. 

1.  Adjectives  in  sig  reject  ^  as, 


2.  Adjectives  in  og  reject  g ;  and  also,  after  a 
short  syllable,  change  o  into  co ;  thus, 

OQ&og  oQ&o-TSQog  oQ&o-tarog 

dixcuog  dwcuo-reQog  dixaio-rarog 

ftOWjQO-TSQOg 


dtfiog  dfoo-tSQog  dfoo-zatog 

og  after  a  short  syllable : 

Gocpog  Gocpco-reQog  GOCpw-raTog 

xsvog  xEvw-teoog  xevco-rarog 


cpavegog  cp(W£Qoc>-T€Qog 


Obs.  The  change  of  o  into  co  is  made,  to  prevent  the  concur- 
rence of  four  short  syllables.  Hence  o,  after  a  doubtful  vowel 
considered  long,  remains  unchanged  ;  but  if  considered  short,  the  o 
is  changed  into  co  ;  thus,  'Ivrl^og  has  IvTtporeQog,  and  HWVQog  has 
iG^VQorsQog  ;  because  i  and  v  are  considered  long  ;  but  ccyQiog  has 
dyQicoreQog,  and  ixavog,  IxavwreQog)  &c.,  because  the  i  and  a  »*« 
considered  short. 


§56.  COMPAKISON  BY   ICO?  AND   iGTOg.  69 

3.  Adjectives  in  a$,  qz,  and  vg,  add  to  the  neu- 

ter gender;  as, 


,  &c. 
EVQV',  EVQV-TSQog,  <fec. 

4.  Adjectives  in  cov  and  r\v  add  to  the  nomina 
tive  plural  masculine  ;  as, 

N.  P.  dtyQOveg  dcpQovsa-rfiQOS,  &c. 

"      teQeveg  teQevsc-TSQOs,  <fcc. 

.  But  nsTiwv  makes  rzeTtaireQOs,  <fec.,  and  mW, 


§  56.  COMPAKISON  BY  «W  AND 

. — Some   adjectives  are  compared   by  icov 
and  ^(7ro^ ;  viz., 

1.  Some    in    QO$,   derived   from    substantives. 
These  form  the  comparative  and  superlative,  not 
from    the   adjective,  but  from   the  substantive ; 
thus, 

O$,  inimical,  from  fydbg,  enmity,  €£#iW, 
og,  compassionate,  olwtoq,  compassion,  otxriar, 
og,  base,  aiG%og,  baseness,  ateyfar,  atG%iGrog. 

og,   long,  .  ptjxo$9    length,  [upticw,    [M'jxiGTog. 

Also  x«Ao^,  beautiful,  has  xa^AtW,  xdkhiGrog,  as  if  from  xaA- 
Aoff,  beauty.  % 

2.  Some  in  t/£  are  compared  both  ways ;  as, 

fia&vg,  deep,        .     @a&vreQogy  fia&vraTog. 

and  /foihW,  8a&uno$. 

In  like  manner  compare  @Qadvg,  slow;  ra%vg,  swift ;  nayvg, 
thick ;  favxvg,  sweet ;  axvg,  quick;  &c. 

3.  QpSyag,  easy,  has  ^alow,  ^a'laroQ ;  or,  with  ^ 
subscribed,  ^acov,  gdarog. 

Note.  Some  of  these,  and  of  others  compared  in  this  way,  are  occa- 
sionally found  compared  by  ttgoq  and  raro<;.  Tot/in;  also  has  a  com- 
parative &otffffo)v,  Att.  Harrow.  The  comparatives  in  ow  are  declined 
like  (Toiygow,  159-1. 


70      IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON.   §  57,  58. 

172._§  57.  IRREGULAR  COMPARISON. 

The  following  adjectives  are  irregular  in  tlieir 
inrmarison:  viz.. 


comparison;  viz., 


fya&og,  good 


aQiGTog          from  s/Qqg,  Mars 
'  from  fiovkopai,  I  wish 


Aftkrr o g          from .  AW,  for  I'hlco,  /  wish 


£QT£()og  -\  tyzQiGTog     >  from  cpsQco,  I  bear 

xax6g,    bad     j  ™* 
*£,     great     pei^cov 


nokvgi     ymny 

,  small    I 


vg,  yjfutti     fAOcaaoo^      E^a^iGTOc 
og,    little      %GGOW,  or  ^£/co^,  or 


§58.  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON. 

173. — Some  adjectives  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  de 
grees,  have  no  positive,  but  are  formed  from — 

1.  NOUNS;  as, 

a  Tdng 
%/   ,  gain 

Owg  God 

xksTTvqg  a  thief 

Kvdog  glory 

xvcov  a  dog 

rtkijxzrjg  a  striker 

norr^g  a  drinker  noriGiaiog 

cold,  rigor        otyicov  oiyiGtog 

a  thief  cpcoqrarog 

2.  PRONOUN;  as, 
avrog  self  avrorarog 

3.  PARTICIPLE;  as, 
strong 


§59.  DIALECTS  OF  COMPARISON.  71 

l 

4.  ADVERBS;  as, 

avco  up  dvco-riQog  -rarog 

immediately 


irfg  near  |  *&?<*$ 


few  out  £%co-r8Qog  -rarog 

xarco  down  xarod-regog  -rarog 

tGG)  in  eGco-reQog  -rarog 

OTiiGG)  back  6mGco-r€Qog  -rarog 

Tifyav  beyond  *     TieQai-reQog  -rarog 

TZOQQCO  far  •  TtOQQco-tspog  -rarog 

fTQcot  early  nQ&iaweQog  -rarog 

vif'i  highly  vipiGrog 

5.  PREPOSITIONS  ;  as, 

TTQO        before        TtQo-rsQog       TtQo^tarog       whence       rtQcorog 
vTieQ      over          vTTSQ^teQog      vneQ^zarog      whence       vnarog 

174. — Some  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  again  com- 
psered ;  as, 

v,  better  hcotreQog 

v,  less  [tsioreoog 

(jacov,  easier  ro  ( 

xakkicov,  more  beautiful  ro  : 

%SQ£ICOV,  \  (  ro  ; 

%eiQCov,    }  (  and 
%KiQiGrog,  worst 

%vdt,Grog,  most  glorious  xvdiGrarog 

lkd%iGrog,  least  &a%iGr6re()og 

175. — Some  words  ending  in  ?/?,  of  the  first  declension,  are 
compared;  thus   (see  160,  Obs.  2), 

v{$QiGrijg,  an  insolent  man             v^QiGro-rsQog  vfc 
~~g,  an  avaricious  man      


176.— §59.  DIALECTS  OF  COMPARISON. 

1.  The  Attics  compare  many  adjectives  in  0£,  yg,  and  |,  by 
-iararog,  -airegog  -airarog,  and  -fareQog  -*Grarog\  as, 


72  THE  PRONOUN.  §60. 


|p,  loquacious  ^.a^iG-reQog  -rarog 

(pikog,  friendly  cpikai-reQog  -rarog 

by  Syncope,  cpik-reQog  -rarog  and 

GTiovdaiog,  diligent  GTtovdaisG-rsQog  -rarog 

acp&orog,  not  envying  dcp&ovsG-reQog  -rarog 

nakaiog,  old  aakai-reQog  -rarog 

aog,  an  old  man  yeQai-rsQog  -rarog 

x£,  rapacious  aQTtayiG-rsQog  -rarog 

,  avaricious  TrheovsxriG-rEQog  -rarog 

g,  false  ipevdiG-gsgog  -rarog 


2.  Dialects  of  particular  comparatives  and  superlatives,  are, 
for  XQEIGGCOV,  I.  and  D.  XQSGGCOV,  better ;  %eiQCiw,  P.  %SQeiwv,  I. 
dat.  %£Qql\  ace.  ^Q^ay  nom.  plur.  %8Qije$ ; — fi-etjow,  I.  pe^wv,  D. 
pdGGav,  greater;  with  others  which  may  be  learned  by  practice 
in  reading. 


§60.  THE  PRONOUN. 

. — A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 
noun. 

178. — Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  Personal, 
Possessive,  Definite,  Reflexive,  Reciprocal,  De- 
mo'nstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite. 
Of  these  the  Personal  only  are  substantives ;  the 
rest  are  adjectives. 

• 

I.    PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

179. — TKe  Substantive  or  Personal  Pronouns 
are  tya,  I,  of  the  first  person ;  av,  thou,  of  the  sec- 
ond ;  and  ov,  of  himself,  of  herself,  of  itself,  of  the 
third  (56)  ;  they  have  the  same  accidents  as  nouns 
(55);  are  of  all  genders;  and,  in  construction, 
take  the  gender  and  number  of  the  noun  for 
which  they  stand.  They  ar-e  thus  declined : 


§60. 


T 

1. 


Singul 


ar. 


THE   PRONOUN. 

First  Person,  MJ 

Dual. 


G. 

D.  ipoi  or  pot 

A.  sps  or  ft/ 


N".  A.  reot'  or  vco 
G.  D.  *>oo  ti>  or  v<$ 


Second  Person,  M.  or  F. 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

N..V.  6v  N.  V.vpelg 

G.  GOV  N.  A.  V.  6<pa>i'  or  (rqpoo  G.  vpow 

D.  GOI  G.  D.  aq)G)w  or  GCpqiv          D.  vfuv 

A.  ff«  A.  vpag 

ov,  of  himself,  of  herself,  of  itself.     Third  Person, 
M.,  F.,  or'N. 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

N.  GCpeig,  Neut  < 
N.  A.  (jqpco/,  (Tqpca 
G.  D.  (t<]pa)iV 


G.  ov 
D.  of 
A.  « 


G. 
D. 
A.  6<$ag,  Neut. 


180. — OBSERVATIONS. 


1.  The  monosyllable  forms  ^ov,  pot,  ft/,  are  always  enclitic, 
2 1-2 3,  and  have  their  accent  thrown  back  on  the  preceding  \ford. 
They  are  never  governed  by  a  preposition. 

2.  In  the  dual,  the  forms  ^w  and  crgpca  are  sometimes  written 
vcp  and  crqpQ). 

3.  The  third  personal  pronoun,  like  sui  in  Latin,  wants  the 
nominative    singular,  and  is  commonly  used  by  the  Attic  prose 
writers  in  a  reflexive  sense ;  i.  e.  -it  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  pro- 
position in  which  it  stands ;  or  of  the  foregoing,  if  the  second  be 
sufficiently  connected  with  it.    Thus  used,  it  is  translated  of  him- 
self, of  herself,  of  itself,  &c.     In  Homer  and  Herodotus,  and  the 
Attic  poets,  it  is  more  frequently  used  as  the  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  for  the  nominative  of  which  they  use  the  relative  og ;  as, 
og  £(pt],  he  said.     This  pronoun,  however,  is  but  little  in  use,  the 
definite  avrog,  182,  and  the  reflexive  iavrov,  183,  being  used  in- 
stead of  it.     The  nominative  (not  now  in  use)  appears  to  have 
been  anciently  i,  from  which  was  derived  the  Latin  is.     A  neu- 
ter form  of  the  nominative  axad  accusative  plural,  crqp/a,  occurs  in 
Herodotus. 


74  POSSESSIVE  AND  DEFINITE  PRONOUNS.      §  61,  62. 

§61.  II.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

181. — The  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS  denote  pos- 
session, and  are  derived  from  the  substantive  pro- 
nouns. 

1.  In  signification,  they  correspond  to  the  genitive  of  their 
primitives,  for  which  they  may  be  considered  as  a  substitute; 
thus,  b  ddekcpbg  Ipov,  the  brother  of  me,  and  6  epbg  ddskcpog,  my 
brother,  are  synonymous  expressions. 

2.  In  form,  they  are  regular  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second 
declensions,  and  are  declined  like  xaLbg,  144.     They  are  derived 
as  follows  : 

From  8[*8       comes*  I  [tog  -q  -ov  my 

GS  Gog  Gt'j  GOV  thy 

8  og  -?}  -ov  his 

v&i  vco'hsQ-og  -a  -or  our,  i.  e.  of  us  two 

?  -a  -ov  your,  i.e.  of  you  two 

-a  -ov  our 

vfieig  vf4st£Q-og  -ex,  -ov  your 

GCpslg  GCpsreg-og  -a  -ov  their 

Doric  Gcp-6g  -//  -ov 

Obs.  To  this  class  also  belong  qfisdanog,  one  of  our  country  ; 
vftsdaaog,  one  of  your  country.  But  noSanbg;  of  ivhat  coun- 
try £-more  properly  belongs  to  the  interrogative, — and  < " 
nbg,  one  of  another  country,  to  the  indefinite  pronouns. 


§  62.  III.  THE  DEFINITE  PRONOUN. 

182. — The  DEFINITE  PRONOUN  avroq  is  used  to 
give  a  closer  or  more  definite  signification  of  a  per- 
son or  thing. 

This  pronoun  has  three  different  significations. 

1.  In  the  nominative  it  adds  the  force  of  the  English  self  to 
the  word  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  e'yco  avrog,  I  myself;  GV  av- 
rog,  thou   thyself;  avrbg,  he  himself:  so  also,  in  the  oblique 
cases,  when  it  begins  a  clause ;  as,  avrbv  ZcoQcwa,  I  have  seen  tite 
person  himself. 

2.  In  the  oblique  cases,  after  another  word  in  the  same  clause, 


§63. 


REFLEXIVE   PROKOUNB. 


75 


it  is  used  for  the  third  personal  pronoun,  and  signifies  him,  her, 
it,  them  ;  as,  ov%  StoQaxat;  UVIQV,  thou  hast  not  seen  him. 

3  With  the  article  before  it,  it  signifies  the  same  ;  as,  6  av- 
iog  dvftQCOTTog,  the  same  man. 

Obs.  In  the  last  sense  when  the  article  ends  with  a  vowel,  it 
often  combines  with  the  pronoun,  forming  one  word ;  thus,  tav- 
tov,  for  rov  avzov  ;  TavTrj,  for  T#  avir^ ;  tavid,  for  ra  avtd,  (fee. 
When  thus  combined,  the  neuter  ends  in  ov  as  well  as  o.  The 
combined  tavrri  and  «ame  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
ravTtj  and  ravra,  parts  of  OVTO$,  185.  The  former  has  the  Spiri- 
tus  lenis  (')  over  the  v,  the  latter  has  not. 

4.  The  definite  pronoun  avtos  is  thus  declined. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 

X. 

»     /        / 

CLVT-Og     -11 

-0 

^N.  A. 

N. 

avt-oi     -at 

-d 

G. 
D. 
A. 

avT-ov    -7j$ 
avi-ca     -rj 
avi-ov    -i]v 

-ov 
-6 

avr-co     -d      -co 
G.  D. 
avr-otv    -cuv    -olv 

G. 
D. 
A. 

avv-cov    -av 
avT-oig   -aig 
avv-ovg  -dg 

-oig 

r 
-CX, 

In  the  same 

manner  are  declined  : 

aUoff 

alln                 allo 

another 

faftfrog 

f  ;        ?  . 

sxewtj               sxswo 

who,  which 
that 

§  63.  IV.  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 

183. — REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS  are  such  as  relate 
to  the  subject  of  the  proposition  in  which  they 
stand. 

1.  The  Reflexive  pronouns  are  formed  from  the  accusative 
singular  of  the  personal  pronouns,  with  the  oblique  cases  of  avrog. 
They  are  ipavrov,  of  myself;  ctavrov,  of  thyself ;  eavrov,  of 
himself;  and  are  thus  declined. 


Singular. 

.  G.  savr-ov  -t]$  -ov 

D.  savr-cp   -fj  -q> 

A.  eavr-ov  -rp  -6 


Plural. 

G.  savr-av      -ar  -& 

D.  eavr-olg     -ai^  -ol 

A.  aavr-ovc     -dg  -d 


2.  In  the  same   manner  are   declined  fyavzov  and  csavrov, 
without  the  neuter  gender,  but,  in  the  singular  number  only.     In 


76  DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS.  §  64,  65. 

the  dual  and  plural,  the  parts  of  the  compound  are  used  sepa- 
rately; as,  {puor  avTwv,  of  ourselves. 

3.  Homer  never  uses  the  compound  form  even  in  the  singu- 
lar ;  but,  tfjis  avTov ;  <j£  avrov,  <fec. 

4.  The  contracted  forms   cavrov  and   avrov,  &c.,  are  often 
used  for  aeavrov  and  eavrov. 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  singular,  and  often  in  the  plural,  savrov 
is  used  by  the  Attics  in  the  first  and  second,  as  well  as  in  the 
third  person.     They  are  all  sometimes  used  a£  reciprocals,  184  ; 
and,  in  some  grammars,  they  are  so  denominated. 

6.  In  these  compounds,  instead  of  av,  the  Ionics  have  cov,  and 
retain  e  before  it ;  thus,  fpecovvov,  GZOMTOV,  <fec.,  for  Ipawzov,  &c. 


§  64.  V.  RECIPROCAL  PRONOUN. 

184. — The  RECIPROCAL  PKONOUN  indicates  a  mu- 
tual relation  between  different  persons,  expressed 
in  English  by  the  phrase  one  another. 

This  pronoun  is  formed  from  attog,  wants  the  singular,  and 
is  thus  declined  : 

Dual.  Plural. 

G.  (M.fi.-oiv    -air    -oiv 

D.  akl.}]k-Qiv    -aiv    -oiv 

A..  dU.fa-co      -a       -co 

The  Dual  is  seldom  used. 


G.  «2JjJ>U«07  -wv  -ow 
D.  o>Ul»>t-(W£  -aig  -oig 
A.  aD±ft-ovg  -ag  -a 


§65.  VI.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

185. — The  DEMONSTRATIVE  PKONOUNS  are  such 
as  point  out  with  precision  a  person  or  thing  al- 
ready known.  They  are, 

ovrog       avrri      IOVTO    )  .-,.     .,     -,  ,t       .,, 

«%  9+  *         'x       [•  this,  the  latter,  the  one. 

ode          ?/0£         rods     j 

Extivog     h.dvri     ixtlvo      that,  the  former,  the  other. 

1.  *0#£,  //^-,  rods,  this,  is  simply  the  article  o,  //,  TO,  rendered 
emphatic  by  the  enclitic  de  annexed  through  all  its  cases,  140-3. 
'Exzlvog  is  declined  like  aviog,  182-4. 


§  66.  RELATIVE  PRONOUN.  77 

Ovrog,  like  the  article,  takes  the  initial  r  in  the  oblique  cases, 
and  is  thus  declined  : 

Singular. 

N.  V.  ovrog  avrq  rovro 

G.  rovrov  ravrqg  rovrov 

D.  rovrco  ravri]  rovrcp 

A.  rovrov  ravrqv  rovro 

Dual. 

N.  A.  V.  rovrco  ravra  rovrco 

G.  D.  rovroiv  ravraiv  rovroiv 

Plural.  _ 

N.  V.  ovroi  •  avrai  ravra 

G.  rovrcov  rovrov  rovrcov 

D.  rovroig  ravraig  rovroig 

A.  rovrovg  ravrag  ravra 

Obs.  The  correlatives  roaovrog,  roiovrog,  and  rifaxovrog 
have  either  ov  or  o  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  singulai 
neuter ;  thus, 

N.  roGovrog  roGavry  roGovrov,  or  roGovro 

G.  roGovrov,  &c. 

2.  Among  the  Attics,  the  demonstratives  were  rendered  em- 
phatic by  adding  i  to  the  termination  ;  as,  ovroGi9  rovrovi,  rov- 
rco'ij  &c.     But  when  the  final  vowel  is  a,  or  o,  or  e,  it  is  dropped, 
and  i  put  in  its  place ;  thus,  ode,  rovro,  ravra,  with  the  emphatic 
i  are  written  6&,  TOVTI,  ravrt.     When  ye  or  de  follows  the  de- 
monstrative, the  i  is  placed  after  it,  e.  g.  rovro  ys  with  i  becomes 
tovroyi.     This  suffix  always  draws  the  accent  to  itself.     A  sim- 
ilar emphasis  is  expressed  in  Latin  by  annexing  the  syllables  met, 
te,  pte,  ce ;  as,  egomet,  tute,  meopte,  kicce  (Lat.  Gr.  118-4;  121, 
Obs.  4  ;  123-3).,  The  t  added  by  the  Attic  and  Ionian  writers  to 
the  Dative  Plural,  however,  is  not  emphatic  but  merely  euphonic. 

3.  The  emphatic  i  is  annexed  also  to  the  compounds  of  ovrog, 
and  a  few  of  the  correlatives ;  such  as  roGovrog,  rotovrog,  ryh- 
xovrog,  roGog,  &c.,  making  roGOvroGi,  &c. 


§  66.  VII.  RELATIVE  PRONOUN. 

186. — The  KELATIVE  PRONOUN  is  one  that  re- 
lates to,  and  connects  its  clause  with,  a  noun  or 
pronoun  going  before  it,  called  the  antecedent. 


78  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN.  §  67. 

1.  The  relative  og,  ?;,  o,  who,  which,  that,  is  declined  like  av~ 
iog  (182-4).     It  is  rendered  emphatic  by  adding  the  enclitic 
syllable  neQ  ;  as,  OG7i€Q,  '/&££>  oneQ,  403-20. 

2.  The  Ionic  and  Doric  writers,  and  the  Attic  tragedians,  in- 
stead of  og,  use  the  article  6,  ?/,  TO,  as  a  relative. 

3.  Instead  of  og,  the  compound  pronoun  OGTIQ  is  used  as  a 
relative  after  nag,  or  any  word  in  the  singular  expressing  an 
indefinite  number  ;  and  oaoi,  after  the  same  words  in  the  plural ; 
as,  nag  oGng,  every  one  who  ;  ndvreg  OGOI,  all  who. 


§67.  VIII.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 

187. — The  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN  is  used  in 
asking  a  question  ;  as,  rig  enoirfii: ;    Who  did  it  ? 

1.  The  interrogative  rig,  ii ;  who?  which?  what?  has  the 
acute  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  and  is  thus  declined  : 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 


N.A. 
rive,  rive,  rive, 

G.  D. 
rivoiv,  rivoiv,  rivoiv. 


N.  riveg,  riveg,  riva, 
G.  rivwv,  rlvcov,  rivcov, 
D.  rlai,     TI'GI,     rial, 
A.  rlvag,  rivag,  riva. 


N.  rig      rig,     ri, 
G.  rivog,  rivog,  rivog^ 
D.  rim,     rivi,     rivi, 
A.  riva,    riva,   n. 

In  the  same  manner  decline  ong,  ovrig,  and  ( 

Obs.  Instead  of  the  genitive  and  dative  rivog,  rlvi,  we  often 
find  a  secondary  form,  rov,  rep ; 

2.  The  interrogative  rig  has  its  responsive  oarig,  which  is  thus 
used  :  rig  STIOI^GS  ;  who  did  it  ?  ovx  oida  oong  inoiqGe,  I  know 
not  who  did  it.  The  responsive  OGng  is  declined  as  follows,  and, 
as  will  be  perceived,  disregards  the  usual  rules  of  accentuation  : 

Singular. 

N.  oGTig  qng  o,n 

G.  ovnvog  rfinvog  ovnvo$ 

D.  on iv i  fjr iv i  ($nvi 

A.  ovnva  ijvriva  o,n 

Dual. 

N.  A.  (anve  arive  corivs 

G.  D.  oivrivoiv  aivnvoiv  oivnvoiv 


§  68.  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS.  79 

Plural. 

N.  oiTiveg  curweg  anva 

G.  cwrivcw  WVTWWV  wmext 

D.    OlGTIGl  aiGTUJl  OlfitlGl 

A.  ovGnvag  aarwag  arwa. 

3.  Instead  of  oGng,  Homer  uses  orig,  declined  like  rig  as 
above,  and  instead  of  the  genitive  and  dative  ovnvog,  c<jmw,  we 
find  the  secondary  forms  orov  and  orcp  (  Obs.  above). 

4.  There  appears  to  have  been,  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  an- 
other interrogative  pronoun,  nog,  ny,  no,  and  its  responsive  bnog, 
onij,  OTTO,  which  have  become  obsolete,  except  in  two  cases,  now 
used  adverbially  ;  viz.  TTOV,  where  ?  Try,  in  what  way  ?  and  hence 
the  responsives  onov  and  OTriJ.     From  these  are  formed  the  inter- 
rogative TioTSQog,  -a,  -ov,  which  of  the  two  ?  and  its  responsive 
oTTozeQog,  -a,  -or,  which  of  the  two  ;  wrdi  several  other  adverbs 
and  adjectives  still  in  use ;  each  interrogative  having  always  its 
own  responsive, — the  one  being  the  correlative  of  the  other ;  as, 

INTERROGATIVES.  RESPONSIVES. 

Adj.  Ttocog,      of  what  kind  ?  oTtotog,      of  what  kind. 

noGog,     of  what  number  ?  baoGog,     of  what  number. 

aqtixog,  of  what  age  ?  onijtixog,  of  what  age. 

TioreQog,  which  of  the  two  ?  bnoTzgog,  which  of  the  two. 

Adv.  nag,        how  ?  onag,        how,  <fec. ;  thus, 

FlqMxos  £Gr( ;  of  what  age  is  he  ?  oi)%  oida  oTitjL'xog,  I  know 
not  of  what  age.  In  the  same  manner  the  responsives  are  used 
without  an  interrogation  preceding  ;  as,  STtehd&ETo  baolog  qv, 
"  he  forgets  of  what  kind  he  was"  To  these  .also  may  be  added 
g,  of  what  country  ? 


§68.  IX.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

188.  The  INDEFINITE  PKONOTJNS  are  such  as  de- 
note persons  or  things  indefinitely.     They  are, 

rig  rig  rl  some  one. 

dswa  dztva          dzi/vct  some  one,  such  a  one. 

&}2o  another. 

other,  a  different  one,  another. 


80  CORRELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  §  69 

To  which  may  be  added  the  following  negatives  ;  viz., 

OVTIS  ovng  ovn  \ 

ovdelg  ovdeuia  ovdw 

,  r   r  ,  rno  one. 

ping 


1.  The  indefinite  rig  has  the  grave  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
to  distinguish  it  from  rig  interrogative,  which  has  the  acute  ac- 
cent on  the  first  ;  the  former  is  enclitic  (21),  the  latter  is  not. 

2.  The  indefinite  dew  a,  some  one,  of  all  genders,  and  always 
with  the  article  prefixed,  is  declined  like  a  noun  of  the  third  de- 
clension ;  thus, 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 


N.  dewa 
G.  dewog 
D.  dewi 
A.  dewa, 


A. 


dews 


G.D. 


deweg 


G. 

D.  * 

A.  dewag 

is  sometimes  indeclinable ;  as,  G.  rov  dewa,  D.  r<p 
deiva.  JUkkog  is  declined  like  avrog,  182—4  ;  sregog,  like  cpave- 
Qog,  145. 

Obs.  1.  All  words  used  interrogatively,  are  also  used  indefi- 
nitely, but  generally  with  the  accent  changed  ;  thus, 

INTERROGATIVES.  INDEFINITES. 

rroGog  ;  how  great  ?  how  many  ?  Ttoaog,  of  a  certain  size  or  num- 
ber. 

nolog  ;  of  what  kind  ?  noibg,  of  a  certain  kind,  such, 

how  old  ?  how  large  ?  nqhwog,  of  a  certain  size  or  age. 


189.—  §69.  CORRELATIVE  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

% 

1.  Besides  the  interrogatives  and  responsives  (187—4),  the 
Greek  language  has  likewise  special  correlative  pronouns,  each 
pair  of  which  has  a  mutual  relation.  The  latter  of  the.  two  is 
expressed  in  English  by  as. 

rocog         ocog         (Lat.  tantus,  quantus),  so  great,  as. 
rolog          oiog          (Lat.  talis,  qualis),  such,  as. 

t/hxog      of  the  same  age,  as  ;  of  the  same^  size,  as. 


2.  When  the  correlation  is  more  expressly  designated,  express- 
ing JUST  as  great  as,  EXACTLY  as  great  as,  the  former  pronoun 


§70. 


DIALECTS   OF  THE   PRONOUJT. 


81, 


(roGog,  volog,  Ttfilxog)  has  8s  or  ovrog  attached  tp-  it,  and  the 
latter  has  on  (from  OTtrj)  prefixed  ;  as, 


¥£    \fa6o 

ovTog  ) 


, 

•  onoGog  -       V  onoiog 

roGovxog  toiovrog 


hxoGde  )  ?  -3  / 
-  -  >  onnkw 
A.ixovtog  } 


190.— §70.  DIALECTS  OF  THE  PRONOUNS. 
IONIC.  DORIC.  JEouc.         POETIC. 


S.         K 

G.  £>«>,  £> 

D.£/A 
D.    KA. 
P.         N.  fytt«;. 

D!  *1^ 
A.* 


iyow,  iyo'wtj. 
eyo')ya,  iyo'wya. 
ifitu. 

tjulv. 

ttflty    OBMff. 


,  a,f.tTv. 


B.  tw,  twycc. 
B.  l/iioix;. 

eluot>,  B.  £/ti/. 


Ct/LlflHTW. 


yo). 


S. 

H.  V. 

G.  fffio,  o~£o,  ai&tv. 

TV,  rvvq,  rvya. 

Tovvrj. 
0*6  v,  ai&tv 

fftlo&tv 

D. 

rol,  riv,  liiv. 

Ttvq. 

A. 

re,  TV. 

TlVj  Tllv. 

D. 

K  A.  V. 

Vfli,   VftfAf. 

P. 

N.  V.  Vfiiis. 

\>H*<;,  ?ip/.uq. 

Vflflf,  Vf 

G.  itftiow. 

{(uoiv. 

vf.ti.ioyv,  Vfjtftiow. 

vpdwv. 

I). 

vu.lv,  Vfilv. 

Vf.tf.lt>,   llflf4l>V, 

V/UfilfflV. 

A.  iV^. 

Vftaq,  vpi,  vft/Lif. 

Vfifiaq,  j^f^ict^ 

vpilcu;. 

Ov,  of  Himself,  &c. 

S. 

G.  f£-0,  OtO,  £fTo, 

IV. 

t&iv,  yidtv. 

iio&tv. 

£0,  t&tV. 

D.  lor. 

lor. 

A.  ^. 

vlv. 

t*lv,  vlv. 

£f,  ffqii. 

D. 

N.  A.  ffifif. 

ffcf  >d)t,  ffcpo). 

P. 

N.  (T^£^. 

ffgii<;. 

(Tq>fTf<;. 

G.  (T(f>fO)V. 

cry  flow. 

D.  Gtylv,  (T(fiL 

OLGtyt,. 

q>lv. 

A.  Gqiicu;. 

G<?i3  o//c.                |<r<jp£s,  affyf. 

ffytlaq 

fttV,  VW. 

ag>e. 

4* 


82  THE    VERB.  §  71. 

Obs.  1.  [jur  and  vlv  are  used  for  the  accusative  in  all  genders 
and  numbers  ;  so  also  is  6~<p£,  among  the  poets,  i.  e.  for  avi-6v, 
•fp,  -o,  and  avr-ovg,  -d^,  -d. 

Obs.  2.  The  adjective  pronouns  are  inflected  in  the  different 
dialects  according  to  the  models  of  the  first  and  second  declen- 


lar  number. 


§  71.  THE  VERB. 

191. — A  VERB  is  a  word  used  to  express  the 
act,  being,  or  state  of  its  subject. 

1.  Verbs  are  of  two  kinds,  Transitive  and  In- 
transitive* 

2.  A  TRANSITIVE  verb  expresses  an  act  done  by 
one  person  or  thing  to  another.     In  Greek,  it  has 
three  forms,  Active,  Middle,  and  .Passive,  195. 

*  These  two  classes  comprehend  all  the  verbs  in  any  language. 
According  to  this  division,  Transitive  verbs  include  those  only  which 
denote  transitive  action;  i.  e.  action  done  by  one -person  or  thing  to 
another,  or  which  passes  over,  as  the  word  sigaifies,  from  the  actor  to 
an  object  acted  upon  ;  as,  "  Caesar  conquered  Gaul,"  or  "  Gaul  was  con- 
quered by  Caesar."  Intransitive  verbs,  on  the  other  hand,  include  all 
those  which  have  nothing  transitive  in  their  meaning — nothing  passing 
over  from  one  person  or  thing  to  another,  and  consequently  no  relation 
to  any  thing  beyond  their  subject  which  they  represent  in  a  certain 
state  or  condition,  and  nothing  more. — Instead  of  the  terms  active  and 
neuter  formerly  used  to  denote  these  two  classes  of  verbs,  the  terms 
Transitive  and  Intransitive  are  here  preferred,  as  being  more  expressive 
and  appropriate,  and  in  order  to  relieve  the  term  "active"  from  the 
ambiguity  created  by  using  it,  both  as  the  designation  of  a  class  of 
verbs,  and  also,  as  the  name  of  a  particular  form  of  the  verb  called  the 
active  voice.  To  the  latter  of  these  only,  it  is  now  applied  in  this  work. 


§  71.  THE   VERB.  83 

3.  An  INTRANSITIVE  verb  expresses  being,  or  a 
state  of  being,  or  action  confined  to  the  actor.  It 
is  commonly  without  the  passive  form.  195,  Obs.  2. 

192. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  use  of  the  verb,  in  simple  propositions,  is,  to  affirm. 
That  of  which  it  affirms  is  called  its  subject,  which,  if  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  is  in  the  nominative  ;  but  when  the  verb  is  in  the  infi- 
nitive, its  subject  is  in  the  accusative. 

2.  The  verbs  that  express  being  simply,  in  Greek,  are  three, 
eiiu,  ylvoiiai,  and  v7iaQ%co,  signifying  in  general  to  be.     The  state 
of  being  expressed  by  intransitive  verbs,  may  be  a  state  of  rest ; 
as,  * vdw,  I  sleep  ;  or  of  motion  ;  as,  ?/  vavg  Trtaa,  the  ship  sails  ; 
or  of  action  ;  as,  T^OO,  /  run. 

3.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  verbs  may  always  be  distin- 
guished thus  :  a  transitive  verb  always  requires  an  object  to  com- 
plete the  sense  ;  as,  qp/Aco  <7£,  I  love  ihee,  the  intransitive  verb 
does  not,  but  the  sense  is  complete  without  such  an  object ;  as, 
tjftui,  I  sit  ;  rgfyco,  I  run. 

4.  Many  verbs  considered  intransitive  in  Greek,  are  translated 
by  verbs  considered  transitive  in  English  ;  as,  dvddva,  I  please  ; 
vTtaxovo),  I  obey  ;  dfffsc&oo,  I  disobey  ;   tpnodKoi),  I  hinder ; 
fVp^kfo),  /  trouble  ;  &c.     In  strict  language,  however,  these  and 
similar  verbs  denote  rather  a  state  than  an  act,  and  may  be  ren- 
dered by  the  verb  to  be  and  an  adjective  word  ;  as,  I  am  pleasing, 
obedient,  disobedient,  &c. 

5.  Many  verbs  are  used,  sometimes  in  a  transitive,  and  some- 
Mffies  in  an  intransitive  sense;  as,  q&fyw,  tr.  I  destroy,  intr.  / 
Isinfc,  or  decay  ;  OQudoo9  tr.  /  stir  up  ;  intr.  /  rush.     This  change 
from  a  transitive  to*  an  intransitive  sense,  however,  is  generally 
indicated  by  a  change  from  the  active  to  the  middle  form  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  cpaivco,  active  tr.  /  shew  ;  (pawopai,  mid.  /  shew  my- 
self, i.  e.  intr.  I  appear.     (See  195,  Note.) 

6.  Verbs  usually  intransitive  become  transitive,  when  a  word 
otsimilar  signification  with  the  verb  itself  is  introduced  as  its  ob- 
ject ;  as,  r££/a>/i£?  tov  dywva,  let  us  run  the  race. 

7.  When  a  writer  wishes  to  direct  the  attention, , not  so  much,  to  a 
particular  act,  as  to  the  employment  or  state  of  a  person  or  thing,  the 
object  of  the  act,  not  being  important,  is  omitted ;  and  the  verb,  though 
transitive,  assunies  the  character  of  an  intransitive.     Thus,  when  we 
say,  "The  boy  reads,"  nothing  more  is  indicated  than  the  present  state 
or  employment  of  the  subject  "boy,"  and  the  verb  has  obviously  an 


84  DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   VERBS.  §  72. 

intransitive  sense  :  still  an  object  is  implied.  But  when  we  say,  "The 
boy  reads  Homer,"  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  object  "Homer,"  as 
well  as  to  the  act,  and  the  verb  has  its  proper  transitive  sense. 


§  72.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  VERBS. 

193.  Though  the  division  of  verbs  into  Transitive  and  In- 
transitive, comprehends  all  the  verbs  in  any  language,  yet,  from 
something  peculiar  in  their  form  or  signification,  they  are  charac- 
terized by  different  names  expressive  of  this  peculiarity.  The 
most  common  of  these  are  the  following,  viz. :  Regular,  Irregu- 
lar, Deponent,  ^Defective,  Redundant,  Impersonal,  Desiderative, 
Frequentative,  and  Inceptive. 

1.  REGULAR  VERBS  are  those  in  which  all  the 
parts  are  formed  from  the  Hoot  or  stem,  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules.      §§  93-97,  and  106,  107. 

2.  IRREGULAR,  or  ANOMALOUS  VERBS,  differ  in 
some  of  their  parts  from  the  regular  forms.  §§112, 
116,  117. 

3.  DEPONENT  VERBS   under  a  middle  and  pas- 
sive form,  have  either  an  active  or  middle  signifi 
cation.     §113. 

4.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS  are  those  in  which  some 
of  the  parts  are  wanting. 

5.  REDUNDANT   VERBS    have    more   than   one 
form  of  the  same  part. 

6.  IMPERSONAL   VERBS   are   used   only  in   the 
third  person  singular.     §  114. 

7.  DESIDERATIVES   denote   desire,  or   intention 
of  doing.     §115,1. 

8.  FREQUENTATIVES    express    repeated    action. 
§  H5,  2. 

9.  INCEPTIVES  mark  the  beginning  or  continued 
increase  of  an  action.     §  115,  3. 


§  73,  74.         INFLECTION   OF  VERBS.  —  VOICE.  85 


§  73.  INFLECTION  OF  REGULAR  VERBS. 

194.  —  To  the  inflection  of  verbs  belong 
Moods,  Tenses,  Numbers,  and  Persons. 

1.  The  VOICES  in  Greek  are  three,  Active,  Mid- 
die,  and  Passive. 

2.  The  MOODS  are  five  ;  the  Indicative,  Subjunc- 
tive, Optative,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 

3.  The  TENSES,  or  distinctions  of  time  in  Greek, 
are  seven,  the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  the  Future, 
the  Aprist,  the  Perfect,  the  Pluperfect,  and,  in  the 
passive   voice,  the  Paulo-post-future,  or  Future- 
perfect. 

4.  The  NUMBEES  are  three;    Singular,  Dual^ 
and  Plural. 

5.  The  PERSONS  are  three  ;  First,  Second,  and 
Third.  - 

6.  The   CONJUGATIONS,  or  forms   of  inflection, 
are  two  ;  viz.,  the  First,  of  verbs  in  co  ;  and  the 
Second,  of  verbs  in  jut. 

Obs.  Some  verbs  appear  in  both  forms  ;  as,  dewvvco  and  deixvv- 
[u,  I  show.  Some  verbs  are  partly  of  the  first  conjugation,  and 
partly  of  the  second  ;  thus,  fiaivw,  I  <70,-of  the  first  ;  2d  Aorist, 
(fiqv,  I  went,  from  ffifii  of  the  second  ;  ftyrmaxm,  I  know  ;  2d 
A  or.  'lyvwv,  I  knew,  from  yvtiyu  of  the  second.  Such  verbs  as 
these,  however,  though  regular  in  each  form,  are  generally  reckon- 
ed among  the  irregular  verbs. 


§  74.  VOICE. 

195. — VOICE  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb 
which  shows  the  relation  of  the  subject,  or  thing 
spoken  of,  to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

The  transitive  verb,  in  Greek,  has  three  voices 
Active.  Middle,  and  Passive. 


86  VOICE.  §  74. 

Obs.  1.  In  all  voices  the  act  expressed  by  the  transitive  verb  is 
the  same,  and  in  all,  except  sometimes  the  middle,  is  equally  tran- 
sitive; but  in  each,  the  act  is  differently  related  to  the  subject  of 
the  verb,  as  follows : 

1.  The  ACTIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject  of 
the  verb  as  acting  on  some  object ;  as,  rvnrco  ot, 
I  strike  you. 

2.  The  MIDDLE  VOICE  represents  the  subject  of 
the  verb  as  acting  on  itself,  or  in  some  way  for  it- 
self; as,  TviiTO/Liai,  I  strike  myself;  s 

TOV  TtoSa,  I  liwrt  my  foot  /  avrjcjdjurj 
bought  me  a  horse. 

3.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject  of 
the    verb    as    acted    upon;    as,    Tvnrofiai,  I  am 
struck  ;  6  novg  sfthacpihj,  the  foot — his  foot — my 
foot — was  hurt. 

Obs.  2.  Intransitive  verbs.,  from  their  nature,  do  not  admit  a 
distinction  of  voice.  They  are  generally  in  the  form  of  the  ac- 
tive voice,  frequently  in  that  of  the  middle  or  passive ;  but,  what- 
ever be  their  form,  their  signification  is  always  the  same;  as, 
&r/jG~y.o()  or  #?//<rxo,«4«f,  /  die. 

Obs.  3.  The  Middle  voice,  in  Greek,  is  so  called,  because  it 
has  a  middle  signification  between  the  active  and  the  passive,  im- 
plying neither  action  nor  passion  simply,  but  a  union,  in  some 
degree,  of  both.  Middle  verbs  may  be  divided  into  Five  Classes, 
as  follows : 

1st.  In  middle  verbs  of  the  first  class,  the  action  of  the  verb  is 
reflected  immediately  back  upon  the  agent ;  and  hence  verbs  of 
this  class  are  exactly  equivalent  to  the  active  voice  joined  with  the 
accusative  of  the  reflexive  pronoun;  as,  Aovaj,  I  wash  another; 
kovoucu,  I  wash  myself;  the  same  as  kovw  fpavrfo. 

2d.  In  middle  verbs  of  the  second  class,  the  agent  is  also  the 
remote  object  of  the  verb,  or  he  with  respect  to  whom  the  act 
.  takes  place ;  so  that  middle  verbs  of  this  class  are  equivalent  to 
the  active  voice  with  the  dative  of  the  reflexive  pronoun*~(f)n«t;z<p, 
aeavzoy,  savioj)',  as,  aiQi-iv,  to  take  up  (any'thing)l  sc./or  another, 
in  order  to  transfer  it  to  another  ;  aiQeio&at,  to  take  up,  sc*.  in 
order  to  keep  it  for  one's  self,  to  transfer  it  to  one's  self.  Hence 
verbs  of  this  class  carry  with  them  the  idea  of  a  thing's  being 
done  for  one's  self. 


§74.  VOICE.  87 

3d.  Middle  verbs  of  the  third  class  express  an  action  performed 
at  the  command  of,  or  with  regard  to,  the  subject,  and  is  expressed 
in  English  by  to  cause.  In  other  words,  this  class  may  be  said  to 
signify,  to  cause  any  thing  to  be  done  ;  as,  %>«qpco,  /  write  ;  yQ(i- 
cpopui,  I  cause  to  be  written  j  I  cause  the  name,  as  of  an  accused 
person,  to  be  taken  down  in  writing  by  the  magistrate  before  whom 
the  process  is  carried,  or  simply,  /  accuse. 

4th.  The  fourth  class  of  middle  verbs,  includes  those  which 
denote  a  reciprocal  or  mutual  action  ;  as",  ?&&&&&#<,  to  make 
libations  along  witJf  another,  to  make  mutual  libations,  i.  e.  to 
make  a  league  ;  8tt&v6G&fu,  to  dissolve  along  with  another,  to 
dissolve  by  mutual  agreement.  To  this  class  belong  verbs  signi- 
fying "  to  contract"  "  to  quarrel"  "  to  contend"  <fec. 

5th.  The  -fifth  class  comprehends  middle  verbs 'of  the  first 
class,  when  followed  by  an  accusative,  or  some  other  case  ;  in 
other  words,  it  embraces  all  those  middle  verbs  which  denote  an 
action  reflected  back  on  the  agent  himself,  and  which  are,  at  the 
same  time,  followed  by  an  accusative,  or  other  case,  which  that 
action  farther  regards ;  as,  dvafivdfjdat  n,  to  recall  any  thing  to 
one's  own  recollection. 

Note.  From  the  reflected  nature  of  this  voice,  many  verbs,  which 
are  transitive  in  the  active  voice,  may  be  rendered  by  an  intransitive 
verb  in  the  middle  voice  ;  a*,  oTtvUo),  /  send  (viz.  another) ;  qpiM.o/iou,, 
I  send  myself,  i.  e.  / go  ;  6^y/wo>,  I  provoke  another  ;  6qyi£onctt>,  I  provoke 
myself,  i.  e.  lam  angry  ;  TTII&O),  I  persuade  another;  miOofiai,,  I  per- 
suade myself,  i.  e.  I  yield,  or  obey.  In  many  instances,  however,  the  re- 
lation to  self  is  not  so  clearly  distinguishable.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  with  the  later  writers,  as  Plutarch,  Herodian,  <fec.  In  the  writings 
of  the  ancient*,  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  and  others,  the  distinction  between 
the  active  and  the  middle  voice  is  much  more  strictly  observed. 

Obs.  4.  The  future  middle  has  often  an  active,  and  sometimes, 
especially  among  the  poets,  a  passive  sense. 

Obs.  5.  The  present,,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect,  the  pluperfect, 
and  the  future-perfect  middle,  are  the  same  as  in  the  passive,  or, 
more  strictly,  they  are  the  passive  forms  in  a  middle- sense.  When 
the  middle  aorists  are  unusual  or  wanting,  their  place  is  supplied 
by  the  "passive  aorists  in  a  middle  sense.  Sometimes,  when  the 
middle  aorist  is  used  in  the  ordinary  sense,  the  passive  also  is  used 
as  a  middle,  but  in  a  peculiar  sense ;  as,  middle  GTt-ikaG&ai,  to 
array  one's  self ;  passive  <rtcd.jjvcu,  to  travel. 

Obs.  6.  The  2  Perfect,  and  2  Pluperfect  Active  (called  by  the 
ancient  grammarians  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  middle)  are  of  rare 
occurrence,  and,  when  used,  are  completely  of  an  active  significa- 
tion. In  a  few  instances,  it  is  true,  they  incline  to  an  intransitive 


88  MOODS.  §  75. 


and  reflexive  sense  ;  as,  frwrw^O,  /  have  persuaded  myself,  i.  e. 
/  am  confident.  But  still  it  is  certain  that,  in  all  cases  in  which 
a  verb  can  have  a  middle  sense,  that  sense  is  expressed,  in  these 
tenses,  only  by  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  passive  in  their  middle 
sense. 


§  75.  MOODS. 

« 

196. — MOOD  is  the  mode  or  manner  of  express- 
ing the  signification  of  the  verb. 

197.  The  moods,  in  Greek^  are  five,  namely; 
the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Optative,  Imperative, 
and*  Infinitive. 

1.  The  INDICATIVE  MOOD  asserts  the  action  or 
state  expressed  by  the  verb  simply  as  a  fact ;  as, 
cpikico,  I  love  /  yQacpti,  lie  writes. 

Obs.  1.  The  indicative,  in  Greek,  being  used  in  dependent,  as 
well  as  in  independent  clauses,  resembles  the  English  indicative, 
and  is  often  used  where  the  subjunctive  would  be  used  in  Latin ; 
as,  yiyvcoffxetg  11$  IGTI;  do  you  know  who  he  is  ?  Latin,  An  sets 
qui  SIT  ? 

2.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  .and  OPTATIVE  Moods  re- 
present the  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb, 
not  as  a  fact,  but  only  as  a  conception  of  the  mind 
still  contingent  and  dependent:  that  is,  they  do 
npt  represent  a  thing  as  what  does,  or  did,  or  cer- 
tainly will  exist,  but   as  what  may,  or  can,  or 
might  exist. 

The  Subjunctive  represents  this  contingency 
and  dependence  as  present; — the  Optative,  as 
vast. 

Obs.  2.  The  subjunctive  and  optative  moods  involve  a  com- 
plex idea  including — 1st  and  chiefly,  the  general  idea  of  liberty 
or  power,  expressed  by  the  English  words,  may,  can,  might,  <fec., 
from  which  the  secondary  ideas  of  contingency  and  futurity  are 
derived;  and  2d,  the  modification  of  this  idea  by  the  meaning  of 


§  75,  MOODS.  89 

the  verb  common  to  all  the  moods ;  thus,  He  may,  or  can,  ex- 
pressed in  Greek  by  the  subjunctive  form,  represents  the  person 
he  in  possession  of  the  general  attribute  of  liberty  or  power.  Com- 
bine with  this  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  then  we  have  the 
general  attribute  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  form,  restricted  to 
the  particular  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb  ;  as,  he  may 
WRITE  ;  he  can  WALK  ;  he  may  BE  LOVED. 

Obs.  3.  The  future  indicative  is  often  used  in  a  subjunctive, 
and  also  in  an  imperative  sense ;  and  hence,  in  the  futures,  there 
is  neither  subjunctive  nor  imperative  mood.  See  Syntax,  699-5 
and  705. 

Obs.  4.  The  contingency  of  an  action  conceived  of  as  past,  is 
pot  absolute,  but  relative  to  the  knowledge  of  the  speaker ;  thus, 
in  the  expression,  ys^aqp?/,  he  may  Jiave  written,  the  act,  if  done, 
is  past,  but  of  the  fact,  the  speaker  is  uncertain. 

3.  The  IMPERATIVE  Mood  commands,  exhorts, 
entreats,  or  permits  ;  as,  ygdcps,  write  thou;  i'rco, 
let  Mm  go. 

Obs.  5.  In  the  past  tenses  the  Imperative  expresses  urgency 
of  command,  expedition,  or  completion  of  action ;  as,  noniGov, 
have  done.  In  the  perfect,  moreover,  the  idea  of  permanent  and 
completed  action  is  implied  ;  as,  e^jfej^.//^^  let  him  have  been 
cast,  \.  e.  let  him  be  cast  speedily,  and  effectually,  and  continue  so  • 
TI  ftvQa  x£xA£/'<7#co,  let  the  door  be  shut,  and  kept  so. 

Rem.  The  future  indicative,  the  subjunctive,  and  the  infinitive, 
are  sometimes  used  imperatively.  See  Syntax  of  these  moods.  - 

4.  The  INFINITIVE  Mood  expresses  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  a  general  manner,  without  any  dis- 
tinction  of  person   or   number;    as,  ygdcptiv,  to 
write  ;  ybyQayivai,  to  have  written  ;  ygdyta&at, 
to  be  written. 

Obs.  6.  Besides  the  common  ;ise  of  the  infinitive,  as  in  Latin, 
it  is  completely  a  verbal  noun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  714. 

Obs.  7.  Hence  the  Greek  infinitive  supplies  the  place  of  those 
verbal  nouns  called  gerunds  and  supines,  in  Latin,  717,  718. 

Obs.  8.  The  infinitive,  with  a  subject,  is  usually  translated  as 
the  indicative,  §  175. 

Obs.  9.  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  exist  only  in  the  indica- 
tive. 


90  THE   TENSES.  §  7^ 

§  76.  THE  TENSES. 

198. — TENSES  are  certain  forms  of  the  Verb 
which,  serve  to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 

The  Tenses  in  Greek  are  seven, — the  Present, 
the  Imperfect,  the  Future,  the  Aorist,  the  Per- 
fect, the  Pluperfect,  and,  in  the  Passive,  the  Fu- 
ture-perfect or  Paulo-post-future. 

Rem.  In  some  verbs,  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  active,  the  aorists  in 
all  the  voices,  and  the  future  in  the  passive  voice,  have  two  different 
forms;  usually  distinguished  as  first  and  second,  but  of  the  same  signifi- 
cation. The  second  future  has  no  existence  in  the  active  and  middle 
voices ;  that  which  was  so  called  by  the  ancient  grammarians,  is  only 
an  Attic  form  of  the  first §101,  4  (1). 

I.  The  PRESENT  tense  expresses  what  is  going 
on  at  the  present  time ;  as,  yQcicpco,  I  write,  I  am 
writing. 

Obs.  1.  The  present  tense  is  used,  to  express  general  truths ; 
as,  £o5#  TQS%SI,  animals  run.  In  historical  narration  it  is  used 
with  great  effect  for  a  preterite  tense. 

II.  The  IMPERFECT  tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  passing,  and  still  unfinished,  at  a  certain 
past  time  ;  as,  fyyayor,  I  was  writing  (when  he 
came). 

JHem.  This  tense  corresponds  in  meaning  and  use  to  the  past 
progressive  in  English,  and  the  imperfect  in  Latin. 

Obs.  2.  From  its  expressing  the  continuance  of  an  action,  this 
tense  is  frequently  .used  to  express  what  was  customary,  or  con- 
tinued from  time  to  time;  as,  6  iTiTioxofiog  rov  Innov  erQifie, 
xta  exrt'vi^s  ?zdaag  i]fie'(MX£,  the  groom  KEPT  RUBBING  and  CUR- 
RYING the  horse  every  day. 

Obs.  3.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  used  instead  of  the  aorist 
to  express  a  past-  action,  without  reference  to  any  specified  time. 
When  the  action  is  continued,  and  not  momentary,  and  when 
actions  of  both  kinds  are  mingled  in  a  narration,  the  continued 
action  is  often  expressed  by  the  imperfect,  and  the  momentary  by 
the  aorist;  as,  f^e'd^afte  y,ai  xaftvhaxrei,  He  RAN  FORTH 
(the  aorist,)  and  CONTINUED  BARKING  at  them  (the  imperfect). 
iw  ovv  tr&zaGTag  edtf^avvo  ol 


§  76.  .       THE   TENSES.  91 

to'  t7ibi-S  fyfie  */<>«*',  ot  OTTJUTCU  ziQfiftovro,  xal  ol  n&r  aerial 
EvQv£  tinovTO.  The  barbarians  RECEIVED  (aorist)  the  peltastce, 
and  FOL'd'HT  (imperf.)  with  them.  But  when  the  heavy-armed 
soldiers  were  near,  they  TURNED  (aorist),  and  the  peltastce  imme- 
diately PURSUED  THEM  (imperf.). 

Obs.  4.  When  the  action  represented  by  the  imperfect  as  be- 
gun and  continuing  in  past  time,  does  not  succeed,  or  fails  to  be 
completed,  it  expresses  only  the  beginning  of  an  action,  or  the 
attempt  to  accomplish  it;  as,  Kfeagyos  di-  tovg  GrqancoTag 
Epid^STO  Uvu.1)  Clearchus  ATTEMPTED  TO  FORCE  the  soldiers 
to  go. 

.  III.  The  FUTURE  tense  expresses  what  will  take 
place  iii  future  time ;  as,  yqaiptoy  I  shall  or  will 
'write. 

Rem.  The  future  tense  corresponds,  to  the  simple  future  in 
Latin  and  English  ;  and,  in  the  passive  voice,  has  two  forms  called 
the  first  and  second. 

Obs.  5.  Other  varieties  of  future  time  are  expressed  by  means 
of  auxiliary  verbs.  See  199-1. 

IV.  The  AORIST  represents  an  action  or  event 
simply  as  past;  as,  fyyaifjcc,  I  wrote. 

.  Rem.  This  tense,  in  all  the  voices,  has  two  forms,  called  the 
first  and  second.  It  corresponds  in  meaning  to  the  past  tense  in 
English,  and  the  perfect  indefinite  in  Latin.  When  the  time  to 
which -the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  refer,  is  manifest  from  the 
context,  the  aorist  is  often  used  instead  of  them. 

Obs.  6.  From  {he  indefinite  nature  of  this  tense,  it  is  used  by 
the  Greeks  to  express  what  is  usually  or  always  true  ;  and  is  ren- 
dered by  the  English  expressions,  i  usually]  i  to  be  wont,'  '  to 
use  ;'  as,  Tax  TOW  cpavkcov  Gwq&&a£  oMyot;  ygovog  du&VGe,  A 
short  time  COMMONLY  DISSOLVES  the  confederacies  of  the  wicked. 
2mxQ(itrjg  IdidaSe  rove  pati/pag  afxa-fri,  Socrates  WAS  WONT 
TO  TEACH  his  disciples  without  any  change.  In  this  signification, 
however,  it  differs  from  the  imperfect  (06s.- 2),  inasmuch  as  the 
aqrist  denotes  what  is  always  customary;  the  imperfect,  what 
was  customary  during  a  specified  period  of  time. 

Obs.  7.  As  the  aorist  does  not,  like  the  imperfect,  express  con- 
tinuance, it  is  often  used  to  express  momentary  action,  and  that 
in  the  same  construction  in  which  the  imperfect  is  used  to  ex- 
press continued  action  (Obs.  3). 


92  THE   TENSES.  §76. 

N.  B.  Though  in  the  paradigm  of  the  verb  the  full  form  of  both  the 
first  and  second  aorist  is  usually  given,  it  must  be  observed  that  when 
the  first  aorist  is  in  use,  the  second  is  usually  wanting,  and  vice  versa. 
In  a  very  few  words  only,  are  both  forms  to  be  found,  and  even  in  these, 
*he  two  forms  for  the  most  part  belong  to  different  dialects,  ages,  or 
styles.  ' 

V.  The  PERFECT  tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  completed  at  the  present  time,  or  in  a 
period  of  time  of  which  the  present  forms  a  part ; 
as,  y&y()acpa,  I  have  ^vritten. 

Rem.  In  some  verbs,  this  tense,  in  the  active  voice,  has  two 
forms  called  the  Perfect  and  Second-perfect.  It  corresponds  in 
meaning  and  use  to  the  present-perfect  in  English,  and  the  per- 
fect definite  in  Latin. 

Obs.  8.  This  tense  implies  that  at  or  in  the  present  time,  the 
act  expressed  by  the  verb  is  completed,  but  does  not  indicate  at 
what  point  or  period  of  time  prior  to  the  present  it  was  completed. 
Thus,  yeyQacpa  TJJV  fniGTOMjr,  /have  written  the  letter,  does  not 
say  when- the  letter  was  written,  but  only  that  it  is  now  written. 
Hence  it  is,  that  this  tense  connects  the  action,  either  in  its  com- 
pletion, or,  in  its  continuance  as  a  completed  act,  with  the  present 
time ;  thus,  y&ydftTjxa,  in  Greek,  means  not  only,  /  have  been 
married  (without  saying  when  the  event  took  place),  but  that  the 
married  state  still  continues,  i.  e.  /  am  married.  Hence  the  per- 
fect is  generally  used  to  denote  a  lasting  or  permanent  state  or  an 
action  finished  in  itself,  and  therefore  often  occurs  in  Greek, 
where,  in  English,  we  use  the  present ;  as,  cifAyifisfiqyag,  thou 
protectest  (i.  e.  thou  hast  protected  and  still  continuest  to  protect). 
The  continued  force  of  the  perfect  accompanies  it  through  all  the 
moods;  as,  slnov  rtjv  fivgav  xexheiG&aij  they  gave  directions 
for  the  door  to.be  shut,  and  to  be  kept  so;  6  [iw  hjGTTfg  ovrog  Ig 
tov  IJvQKpl.eye'd'ovTa  tfifl&fikyG'd'w,  Let  this  robber  be  cast  into 
the  Pyriphlegethon,  and  continue  there. 

Obs.  9.  In  several  verbs,  the  perfect  tense  is  always  used  to 
denote  only  the  finished  action,  whose  effect  is  permanent,  and 
therefore,  in  English,  is  translated  by  the  present  of  some  other 
verb,  which  expresses  the  consequence  of  the  action  expressed  by 
the  Greek  verb.  Thus,  xttta'oo,  /  name,  perfect  passive  x  t  x  A  r\  - 
pal,  I  have  been  named,  and  continue  to  be  so,  but  commonly 
rendered,  /  am  named,  or  my  name  is.  So  also,  from  xvdopai, 
I  acquire  for  myself,  xexrqpai,  I  possess  (i.  e.  I  have  acquired, 
and  the  acquisition  continues  mine) ;  ijuvdo^ai,  I  call  to  my  re- 
collection ;  n  BH  v  r\  11  a  i ,  /  remember. 


§  77.  THE   TENSES.  93 

VI.  The  PLUPERFECT    represents   an  action  as 
completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time;   as, 
I  had  written  (some  time  ago). 


Rem.  This  tense,  like  the  perfect,  in  the  active  voice,  has  two 
forms  called  the  Pluperfect  and  Second-pluperfect.  In  both,  its 
meaning  is  the  same,  and  corresponds  to  the  pluperfect  in  Latin 
and  English. 

Obs.  10.  The  pluperfect  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  per- 
fect, that  the  imperfect  does  to  the  present  ;  and  hence  whenever 
the  perfect  is  rendered  by  the  present  (  Obs.  9),  the  pluperfect 
will  of  course  be  rendered  as  the  imperfect  ;  as,  dsdoixa,  I  fear, 
Id  ed  o  ix  e  iv,  I  feared. 

VII.  The  FUTURE-PERFECT,  or  PAULO-POST-FUTURE,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called  by  grammarians,  is,  both  in  form  and  significa- 
tion, compounded  of  the  perfect  and  future,  and  denotes, 

1.  The  continuance  of  an  action,  or  state,  in  itself,  or  conse- 
quences *  as,  11  nohrzia  reht'cog  xexoG^jGeratj  The  city  will  con- 
tinue to  be  completely  organized  ;  ysyQatyerai,  He  shall  con- 
tinue enrolled.     In  thus  expressing  continuance,  it  agrees  in  sig- 
nification with  the  perfect,  and  hence, 

2.  It  is  the  natural  future  of  those  perfects  which  have  ac- 
quired a  separate  meaning  of  the  nature  of  the  present  (  Obs.  9)  ; 
as,  liAei&tcu,  he  has  been,  and  continues  left,  i.  e.  he  remains  ; 
Paulo-post-F.   hekeiipezai,  he  will  remain;  xMTtjpai,  I  have 
acquired  and  continue  to  retain,  i.  e.  /  possess  ;  Paulo-post-future 
X£xz?/(j0jttcc«,  /  shall  possess. 

3.  It  is  frequently  used  to  intimate  that  a  thing  will  be  done 
speedily  ;  as,  <pQ(i&  xal  neTTyd^erai,  speak  and  it  shall  be  done 
immediately. 


199.— §77.  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 

TENSES. 

1.  Time  is  naturally  divided  into  the  Present,  Past,  and  Fu- 
ture; and  in  each  of  these  divisions  an  action  may  be  represented 
either  as  incomplete  and  continuing,  or  as  completed  at  the  time 
spoken  of;  thus, 


94  THE   TENSES.  §  77. 


p         :.     (Action  continuing;  as,  ^paqpco,  I  write  or  am  writing. 
(  Action  completed  ;     as,  y^^a^pflt,  /  have  wr.ittm. 


p  j  Action  continuing;  as,  waqpoy,  I  was  writing. 

(  Action  completed  ;  as,  ^'^(Wtqp&y,  /  /«*o?  written. 

(  Action  continuing;  as,  /(mi^oo,  I  shall  write. 

FUTURE.    \  Action  completed  ;  as,  yeyQaywg    tGopai,    I  -  shall 

(  have  written. 

Of  these  six  divisions  of  time,  it  will  be  observed,  that  all  ex- 
cept the  last  are  expressed  by  distinct  forms  or  tenses  of  the  verb  ; 
and  this  last  is  also  expressed  by  a  distinct  form  in  the  passive 
voice,  called  the  Paulo-post-future.  It  may  also  be  noticed  that 
in  each  of  these  three  divisions  of  time,  by  means  of  an  auxiliary 
'  verb  and  the  infinitive,  an  action  may  be  represented  as  on  the 
point  of  beginning  ;  thus, 

PRESENT,  u&kw  yQOtyeiv,  I  am  about  to  write. 

PAST.         ejrt&Uo?  yQctyziv,  I  was  about  to  write. 

FUTURE.    ft&Ut^&o)  ygoiqiew,  I  shall  be  about  to  write. 

2.  Besides  these,  the  Greek  has  the  advantage  of  a  separate 
tense  under  the  division  of  past  time,  to  intimate  simply  that  the 
action  is  past  without  reference  to  any  particular  point  of  time  at 
which  it  took  place,  and  hence  is  denominated  the  Aori*t,  i.  e.  inde- 
finite.    This  tense  is  rendered  into  English  by  the  past  tense,  and 
into  Latin,  by  the  imperfect  and  perfect  tenses  in  an  indefinite 
sense. 

3.  The  tenses,  divided  as  above  into  three  classes,  in  respect 
of  time,  are  farther,  with  regard  to  their  termination  and  use, 
divided  into  two  classes  or  series,  which  may  be  denominated  the 
Chief  or  Primary,  and  Secondary  tenses  ;  thus, 

Chief,  or  Primary.  Secondary. 

Present.  Imperfect. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Future.  1  Aorist. 

Future-perfect,  or  P.  P.  Fut.  2  Aorist. 

The  chief  tenses  are  employed  in  the  direct  address,  to  express 
actions  as  present  or  future.  The  secondary  are  used  in  the  reci 
tal  of  these  actions  as  past  ;  and  hence  are  sometimes  denomi 
nated  the  Historical  Tenses. 

4.  la  the  English  expression  of  the  moods  and  tenses,  <fec.,  great 
precision  cannot  be  expected.     Their  signification  often  varies  accord 
ing  to  the  conjunctions  and  particles  with  which  they  are  joined,  and 
hence,  a  corresponding  variety  of  translation  becomes  necessary.     In 
consequence,  also,  of  the  number  of  independent  forms  being  greater  in 


§  78.  AUXILIARY  VEKBb.  95 

the  Greek  verb  than  in  the  English,  it  is  necessary  to  express  certain 
tenses  and  moods,  in  the  former,  by  a  circumlocution  in  the  latter  ;  and 
sometimes,  in  order  to  give  the  precise  idea  of  the  Greek  tense,  a  to- 
tally different  construction  must  be  adopted  in  the  English  sentence  by 
which  it  is  translated ;  thus,  having  no  imperative  in  the  past  tense 
in  English,  the  full  force  of  the  imperative  forms,  in  the  past  tenses  in 
Greek,  must  either  be  lost  in  the  translation,  or  preserved  at  the 
expense,  often,  of  a  clumsy  circumlocution.  (197,  Obs.  5.)  In  like 
manner,  if  we  were  required  to  give  a  strict  translation  to  an  aorist 
participle,  according  to  the  idiom  of  our  language,  we  must  use,  not  a 
participle,  but  a  tense  of  the  verb ;  thus,  TOTTO  Tro^trac;  outljjifre^,  is 
commenly  rendered,  having,  done  this,  he  departed;  when,  in  fact,  it 
should  be,  when  he  did  this,  he  departed.  The  ordinary  rendering  of  the 
moods  and  tenses  is  the  same  in  Greek  as  in  Latin.  This,  as  well  as 
peculiarities  of  usage,  is  fully  illustrated,  §§75,  76. 


§  78.  AUXILIARY  VERBS. ' 

"200 — Although  the  Greek  language  is  richer  than  any  other  in 
independent  forms,  nevertheless  a  circumlocution  is  frequently  made 
use  of,  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  drat,,  y.vgtlv,  vndoxtw,  t/tw, 
<fcc.,  in  connection  with  a  participle  or  infinitive,  partly  to  supply  defi- 
cient, or  to  avoid  inharmonious  forms  ;  partly  to  strengthen  the  signi- 
fication ;  and  partly  to  express,  with  more  minuteness  and  .precision, 
the  time  and  manner  of  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb ;  thus, 

1.  The  subjunctive  and  optative  in  the  perfect  passive,  are  generally 
formed  with  ilvcu  and  the  perfect  participle ;  the  independent  forms 
being  rarely  used.     The  same  construction  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
active  voice. 

2.  To  express  a  purpose  of  doing,  or  the  proximity  of  an  event,  /«&U 
/w,  &i}.o),  and  i&i)M,  with  the  infinitive,  are  used ;  as,  o,rt,  ftilJitu;  /«'- 
ytt>v,  whatever  you  are  about  to  say. 

3.  Continuance,  or  a  permanent  state,  combined  with  the  various 
circumstances  of  commencement,  simple  existence,  priority,  energy,   or 
accident,  is  expressed  by  yivo/uai,,  iif.il,  v7td^/o)f  XVQW,  e/w,  rny/dvo), 
with  a  participle  ;  as,  eyiv&ro  av&q&Jtof;  amGta)*pivo<;,  there  was  a  man 
sent. 

4.  The  completion  of  an  event  is  expressed  by  tiui,  with  &  past  par- 
ticiple.    With  such  a  participle,  tlfii  in  the  past  tense,  is  equivalent  to 
the  pluperfect,  but  is  much  more  emphatical ;  as,  roix,-  o~i>xoq>dvTac;  T.q<; 
TToAeoxj  rjv  d  KO  £  a  s ,  he  WAS  AFTER  DRIVING  the  informers  from  the  city. 
In  like  manner,  &ao^ai  in  the  future,  with  a  past  participle,  expresses 
the  future-perfect  in  the  indicative ;  the  subjunctive  and  optative  of 
which  is  supplied  from  the  aorists  and  perfect ;  as,  TTiTrotqiLiivov  taicu, 
it  shall  have  been  done,  or  it  shall  be  done  quickly. 

5.  Anticipated  performance  is  expressed  by  cp&dvo)  or  nqoffiOdvoi, 
with  a  participle  ;  as,  ^vvrLdtvrat>  (f&daat,  rl  d(ido~avreq  //  na&iiv,  they 
conspire  to  do  something  to  avoid  suffering. 

6.  Secrecy,  so  as  to  escape  not  only  the  knowledge  of  others,  but 
even  a  person's  own  consciousness,  is  expressed  by  l.av&dvw,  with  a 


96  PARTICIPLES.  §  79. 

participle ;  as,  eJM&ov  twtq  £tvt,dcravTf(;  ayyelovc,  some  persons  enter- 
tained angels  unawares. 

7.  A  variety  of  other  circumstances  are  expressed  by  joining  appro- 
priate adjectives  and  participles,  with  ti/ui;  as,  qicivt^bi;  ijv  ihW,  he 
sacrificed  openly. 

8.  Strong  and  earnest  desire  is  expressed  by  the  imperfect  or  second 
aorist  of  o>f/Ao>,  agreeing  with  its  subject,  and  commonly  followed  by 
the  infinitive ;  the  particle  flrt  is  sometimes  joined  with  it,  and  some- 
times not ;  as,  My  oyilov  vwav,  I  wish  that  I  had  not  conquered.     AV& 
oytl.ov  /titlvat,,  Would  to  God  I  had  stayed. 

9.  Imperious  duty  of  necessity  is  expressed  by  verbal  adjectives  in 
rioq  (202),  either  agreeing  with  their  substantives,  or,  what  is  more 
usual,  having  their  agents  in  the  dative,  and  governing  their  objects  as 
the  verbs  do  from  which  they  are  derived ;  as,  6  aya&b<;  ftovoq  11^1]- 
teoq,  the  good  man  alone  must  be  honoured. 

10.  In  some  cases,  there  appears  to  be  a  pleonasm  in  the  use  of  cer- 
tain auxiliaries,   where   there  is  really  none ;  for  by  analyzing  the 
expressions, _we  shall  find  every  word  having  its  own  distinct  force ; 
thus,  ixojv  *lv<u  sTtda&opfvoq,  is  incorrectly  translated,  forgetting  will- 
ingly.    The  full  force  of  the  words  may  be  expressed  in  English  thus : 
willing  to  be  after  forgetting — according  to  the  ancient  Celtic  idiom. 
(See  No.  4;  also  Construction  of  the  Participle,  §  177-IV.) 


§  79.  PARTICIPLES. 

201. — PARTICIPLES  are  parts  of  the  verb,  and, 
without  affirmation,  express  its  meaning  considered 
as  a  quality  or  condition  of  an  object ;  as, 

fa&e  fiksftcov,  he  came  seeing. 

$rag  xdrco&ev  layvsi  avrov,  standing  below  he  praised  him. 

Participles  are  varied  like  adjectives,  by  gender,  number,  and 
case,  to  agree  with  substantives  in  these  accidents.  If  the  idea 
of  time  be  separated  from  the  participle,  it  becomes  an  adjective. 

Every  tense  in  Greek,  except  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  has 
its  participle, — a  circumstance  which  gives  the  language  a  decid- 
ed advantage  over  the  Latin,  which  has  no  present  participle  pas- 
sive, nor  past  participle  active. 


§  80.   VERBAL  OR  PARTICIPIAL  ADJECTIVES  IN  tog 
AND  rsog. 

202. — The  Greeks  have  verbal  adjectives,  which,  both  in  signi- 
fication and  use,  resemble  participles.  They  are  formed  by  adding 
the  syllables  toe  and  ttog  to  the  first  root  of  the  verb  ;  thus, 


§80.  PARTICIPIAL  ADJECTIVES.  97 

Root.  Verbal  Adj. 

I  say         fay  tog  kexrog,      said. 

I  write      yQacp  rog  yQanrog,  written. 

I  love       '  cpds  rsog  cpityre'og,  to  be  loved. 

Those  derived  from  liquid  verbs  add  rog  and  rsog  to  the  sec- 
ond root  ;  as, 

),  I  extend,       2d  R.  row-  '  rsog,        rars'og,  to  be  extended. 


Note.  In  those  derived  from  pure  verbs,  the  vowel  preceding  the  ter- 
mination is  sometimes  lengthened,  sometimes  not  ;  thus,  from  g>  Jeo;,  the 
adjective  is  q>^tjrioq  ;  but  from  aiqeo),  aigtros. 

Obs.  1.  The  verbal  adjectives  in  rog  have  commonly  a  pas- 
sive signification,  and  either  correspond  to  the  Latin  perfect  par- 
ticiple passive  ;  as,  notrjrog,  factus,  made  ;  %vrog,  aggestus;  crQS- 
TiTog,  flexus  ;  or,  they  convey  the  idea  of  ability  and  capacity, 
expressed  by  the  Latin  adjectives  in  His  ;  thus,  oQarog,  visibilis, 
visible;  dxovarog,  audible,  &c.  Frequently,  however,  they  have 
an  active  signification  ;  as,  xad.v7irog,  concealing  ;  [Aepnrog,  blam- 
ing, &c. 

Obs.  2.  Those  in  rsog  correspond  to  the  Latin  future  partici- 
ple in  dus,  and  convey  the  idea  of  duty,  necessity,  or  obligation  ; 
as,  cpdtjreog,  amandus,  who  ought  to  be  loved  ;  rtorsog,  bibendus, 
"  which  ought  to  be  drunk." 

Obs.  3.  The  verbal  reov,  in  the   neuter    (among  the  Attics 
more  commonly  re'a  in  the  plural),  corresponds  to  the  Latin  ge-^ 
rund  ;  thus,  norsov  (Attic  nore'a)  Icrl,  bibendum  est  ;  TZo^s^rsa 
sari,  bellandum  est. 

Note.  For  the  construction  of  these  adjectives,  see  Syntax,  §  147, 
Rules  L  and  II. 

203.  —  ACCENTS   OF  THE   VERB. 

In  verbs,-  the  accent  is  placed  as  far  from  the 
end  of  the  word  as  the  quantity  of  the  final  sylla- 
ble will  permit  (22  &  24). 

204.  —  EXCEPTIONS  AND  VARIETIES. 

1.  Monosyllables,  if  long,  are  circumflected  ;  as,  w,  e7g,  (pyg, 
ffi,  for  %. 

2.  A  long  syllable  after  the  characteristic,  unless  followed  by  a 
long  syllable,  is  circumflected  — 

1st.  In  the  active,  and  the  middle  voice  in  the  future  of  liquid 
verbs  ;  as,  aTTf^co,  GnsQeig,  GTISQSW,  GTisgovftai,  &c.,  be- 
cause contracted  for  GTZSQSCO,  <fec. 


98  CONJUGATION.  §  81. 

2d.  In  the  passive  voice,  in  tlie  subjunctive  of  the  aorists ;  and 
in  the  subjunctive  present  of  verbs  in  \ni ;  as,  rvgp#-e5, 
-??£>  y — maw,  tvnyg,  &c. — -n#c5,  nd-cop,ai. 

3.  The  third  person  of  the  optative  in  61  and  at  has  the  acute 
accent  on  the  penult;  as,  tervcpoi,  og&no,  except  in  the  futures, 
No.  2— 1st. 

4.  The  imperatives,  Ik&e,  sine,  EVQK,  ids,  la^e,  have  the  accent 
cm  the  final  syllable  ;  but  the  imperative,  2  aor.  middle,  2d  person 
singular,  circumflects  the  final  syllable ;  as,  TVTTOV — except  ysVov, 
ryanov,  tvsyxov. 

5.  The  infinitive  of  the  2  aorist  active  circumflects  the  final 
syllable ;  as,  tvastv. 

The  infinitive  of  the  1st  aorist  active,  2d  aorist  middle,  both 
aorists  passive,  all  the  perfects,  and  the  infinitives  of  the  active 
voice  in  the  2d  conjugation,  have  the  circumflex  on  the  long  pe- 
nult, and  the  acute  on  the  short. 

6.  The  participles  of  the  2d  aorist  active,  of  the  present  active 
of  verbs  in  (M,  and  all  ending  in  cog  or  sig,  have  the  acute  accent 
on  the  final  syllable ;  as,  tvnwV)  icrdg,  didovg,  fervyt&g,  rwp&&$. 

The  participles  of  the  perfect  passive,  have  the  acute  accent  on 
the  penult ;  as,  rervp^svos. 

17.  El^ii  and  qyqiu  have  the  acute  accent  on  the  final  syllable 
in  the  indicative  (except  the  2d  sing.) ;  thus,  fern,  yqai,  &c. 


§81.  CONJUGATION. 

205. — The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular 
combination  and  arrangement  of  its  several  voices, 
moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  persons,  according  to 
a  certain  order. 

*  206. — Of  regular  verbs,  in  Greek,  there  are  two 
conjugations ;  viz.,  the  first,  of  verbs  in  co ;  and  the 
second,  of  verbs  in'  jut. 

207. — Verbs  of  the  first  conjugation,  in  the  ac- 
tive voice,  end  in  &9  and  in  the  middle  and  pas- 
sive, in 


§  82.  THE  ROOT.  99 

ANALYSIS  OF  VERBS  IN  CO. 

208. — Verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  consist  of 
the  following  parts  ;  viz., 

1.  The  root  or  stem,  which  is  unchanged,  except 
as  modified  by  the  rules  of  euphony  ;  and, 

2.  Those  parts  which,  by  their  changes,  distin- 
guish the  voices,  moods,  tenses,  numbers,  and  per- 
sons.    These  parts  are  the  tense-sign,  the  augment, 
and  the  terminations. 


§  82. 1.  THE  ROOT. 

209. — 1.  The  EOOT  is  that  part  of  the  verb 
which  remains  unchanged  throughout,  except  as 
required  by  the  rules  of  euphony,  and  serves  as 
the  basis  of  all  the  other  parts. 

2.  The  final  letter  of  the  root  marks  the  char- 
acter of  the  verb,  and  is  therefore  called  the  char- 
acteristic ;  it  is  either  a  vowel,  or  a  mute,  or  a 
liquid. 

When  the  characteristic  is  a  vowel  the  verb  is 
called  pure  ; — when  a  mute,  the  verb  is  called 
mute ; — and  when  a  liquid,  the  verb  is  called 
liquid. 

3.  In   regular   verbs,  the   characteristic  is  the 
letter  next  the  termination  in  the  present  indica- 
tive ;  as,  y,  in  hsycj ;  n,  in  TQSTCCO  ;  £,  in  (pik'sco. 

Exc.  But  if  of  two  consonants  the  last  is  T  or 
a  liquid,  the  first  is  the  characteristic ;  as,  ny  in 
TV  TCI  co  and  /LCCCQJITCO  ;  ft,  in  Tsp,vco. 

FINDING   THE   ROOT. 

4.  RULE.   Strike  off  from  the  present  indicative 
*  all  that  follows  the  characteristic;   what  remains 


100  THE  ROOT.  §82. 

is  the  root  /  thus,  hsy-co,  rsgn-co, 
vco ;  roots  fey,  TZQTC, 


OBSERVATIONS. 

210.  —  Obs.  1.  The  letter  r  is  frequently  added  to  the  root  be- 
fore the  termination  in  the  present  and  imperfect,  apparently  to 
strengthen  the  sound,  as  in  rvTtrco.  The  characteristic,  if  a  mid- 
dle or  aspirate  mute,  coming  before  this  r,  is  of  course  changed 
into  its  own  smooth  (43-2)  ;  thus,  ^ccqp  Before  TOO  becomes  part, 
and  the  verb,  flamco.  Hence,  in  order  to  find  the  root,  the  char- 
acteristic changed  by  euphony  must  be  restored  as  in  the  follow- 
ing words  : 

Charac.     Root. 
by  euphony  for    ^.CC^TOO         ft        'fikafi 

ft 


acprco  q)         acp 

<p         fiacp 


VacpTG)          <jp 
ffxaqprco         <p    .     o"xa<jp 


dQVCpTG)  (p 

QttyTCO  ty 


Also  cr^v/oo  and  ipv%co  have  their  roots  G^ivy  and 
Note.  The  preceding  list  contains  all  the  words  to  which  this  obser- 
vation is  applicable. 

SECONDARY  FORMS. 

211.  —  065.  2.  Many  verbs  have  a  Secondary  form  in  the  pre- 
sent and  imperfect,  which  has"  come  into  general  use,  while  the 
original  form  or  theme,  has  become  obsolete,  §  116.  The  root 
of  the  theme  nevertheless  remains  the  proper  root  of  the  verb 
in  the  other  tenses,  and  will  be  found  in  the  future  by  striking  off 
do).  If  the  letter  next  preceding  be  a  consonant,  it  is  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  verb.  If  it  be  a  long  vowel,  either  that  or  its  cor- 
responding short  vowel  is  the  characteristic.  But  if  it  be  a  short 
or  doubtful  vowel,  the  characteristic  is  either  that  vowel  itself,  or 
a  7-mute,  which  has  been  rejected  before  dco  for  the  sake  of  sound, 
44-8.  This  observation  applies  in  the  following  cases  ;  viz., 

1st.  Verbs  in  GGCO  (rrw)  or  fco,  are  secondary  forms,  derived 
from  primary,  whose  characteristic  is  a  x-mute  (commonly  y) 


§82.  THE   ROOT.  10] 

when  the  future  ends  in  £00 ;  or  a  r-mute  (commonly  d)  when 
the  future  ends  in  crco.  The  characteristic  being  substituted  for 
cro"  (TT),  or  f,  gives  the  supposed  primary  form.  Thus, 

Secondary  form.  Future.  Char.    Primary  form.     Hoot. 

(Woo)  fiQd^co  y 

XQa^co  y 

(TTCO)  TikaGG)  d 


CCQTiad 

Exc.  The  following  are  the  verbs  of  this  class  which  have  not  y  or 
J  for  their  characteristic ;  viz.,  fifaffo),  OQVGGO),  qiQiGGM,  XQQVGGW,  and 
Maffoiiat,  which  have  their  roots  respectively /?///,  OQV%,  < 
hi,  making  the  primary  forms  pfao),  OQI>XO),  gtgltVrXOQv&w, 


2d.  Most  verbs  in  GXW  are  secondary  forms  from  pure  verbs 
in  00  (§  116,  I  and  II).  The  primary  forms  will  appear  by  drop- 
ping crx ;  thus,  y^cccrxco,  primary  form  yqQdw,  Root,  yriQa. 

3d.  Many  verbs,  irregular  in  the  present  and  imperfect,  are 
secondary  forms  from  obsolete  verbs  which  furnish  the  roots  for 
the  other  tenses.  See  §§116  and  117.  In  nearly  all  such  verbs, 
the  first  root  will  be  found  by  taking  GCO  or  Gopai  from  the  future 
as  found  in  the  Lexicons ;  thus, 

Secondary  form.  Future.  1  Root.  Primary  form. 

hafifiavco  MjifJOfMU  7^^  h'jflco 

hav&avG)  hjGco  ty-d1  ht]\}oo 

rtvv&dvopcu  TievGOftat  7iev& 

*fia  /3«o> 


Rem.  In  reducing  secondary  into  primary  forms  in  this  manner,  the 
vowel  before  ao)  and  cro/m*  in  the  future,  made  long  by  §  96,  R.  1,  must 
be  shortened ;  and  the  r-mute,  rejected  by  §  94,  R.  2,  must  be  restored, 
to  give  the  proper  form  of  the  root ;  as,  fiaivo)  and  Zav&dvo),  above.  In 
all  mute  verbs,  the  proper  characteristics  concealed  by  combining  with 
GO),  &G.  will  always  be  seen  in  the  2  aorist,  or  2  perfect.  Thus  in  Accv- 
•9-dvo),  the  2  aor.  is  !7a#oi>,  showing  the  characteristic  to  be  #,  andxl  root, 
consequently,  ty9:  Hence 

TO    FIND    THE    ROOT    IN    SECONDARY    FORMS. 

212. — RULE.  From  the  future  indicative  active 
or  middle  as  found  in  the  Lexicons,  strike  off  ceo 
or  6o/j,ai, ;  what  remains  is  the  root,  either  in  its 
simple  form,  or  modified  by  the  rules  of  euphony ; 
thus, 


102                                 THE   SECOND  BOOT.  §83. 

Secondary  form.         Future.  Root. 

elide      aco  leaves     rtQoy,  44-7 

GCO  xpaj',  44-7 

ceo  Tihad,  44-8 

GCO  (pgad,  44-8 


GOfjiai  l?//3,  44-6 

(Ta>  ^i)-,  44-8 

7tvv&dvo[ji,ai          nevGOfiai  Qopai  nmft,  44-8 


213.  —  3.  Many  verbs  change  the  form  of  the  root  in  the  se- 
cond tensei,  i.  e.  in  the  second  future  passive,  and  second  aorist  ; 
and  in  the  second  perfect,  and  second  pluperfect  active.  These 
forms,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  are  called  the  SECOND  and  the 
THIRD  root  —  the  root  of  the  present  being  the  FIRST  ROOT. 


§  83.  THE  SECOND  ROOT. 

214. — The  second  root  is  always  formed  from 
the  first,  according  to  the  following 
RULES. 

1.  A  long  vowel  in  the  first  root  is  changed  in- 
to a  in  the  second ;  thus, 

Verb.  1st  R.  2d  R. 

GUTl 


2.  In  diphthongs,  a  is  retained  and  s  is  reject- 
ed; as, 

Verb.         1st  R.       2d  R.  Verb.         1st  R.  2d  R. 

cpawco,        tyVLiv          (par  faina,        tern  fan 

xaioo,          xcu  xa  cpsvyw,       <$£vy  cpvy 

EXQ.  But  liquid  dissyllables  change  si  into  «, 
polysyllables  into  s  ;  as, 

Verb.  1st  R.  2d  R. 

Diss.          reivco,  rsw     \  rav 

Polysyl.     dysiQG), 


§  84:.  THE   THIRD  ROO*  103 

3.  In  dissyllables  not  pure,  s  before  or  after  a 
liquid,  is  changed  into  a  ;  as, 

Verb.         IstR.      2d  R.          Verb.  1st  R.       2d  R. 


.  dsQX         dagx 
Exc.  But  s  remains  unchanged  after  A,  in 

4.  Pure  verbs  in  da)  and  SCD  reject  the  a  and 
(216,  Exc.  1)  ;  as, 

Verb.  1st  R.  2d  R. 


<srvy 


§  84.  THE  THIRD  ROOT. 

215. — The  third  root  is  always  formed  from  the 
second,  according  to  the  following 

RULES. 

1.  s,  of  the  second  root,  is  changed  into  o  in 
the  third ;  as, 

Verb.  IstR.  2d  R.  3d  R.' 

A/yco,  tay  fay  hoy 

ayeiQW,  dysiQ  dyeQ  ayoQ 

2.  a,  of  the  second  root,  from  s  or  zi  in  the 
first,  is  changed  into  o  in  the  third  ;  as, 

Verb.  IstR.  2d  R.  3d  R. 

^rtaxco,  7ike,K  nkuM  rikw 

G7181QG),  67t£lQ  GTtCLQ  GTtOQ 

tewG),  rew  tav  vov 

Tk'pvG),  rep  tap  top 

3.  i,  of  the  second  root,  from  sc  of  the  first,  is 
changed  into  01 ;  as, 

Verb.  IstR.  2d  R.  3d  R. 

fan 


104  ffHE   THIRD  ROOT.  §85. 

4.  a,  of  the  second  root,  from  77  or  ai  of  the 
first,  is  changed  into  r\  in  the  third  ;  as, 

Verb.  IstR.  2d  K*  3d  E. 


GijTZ  can  '         •       GT]TI 

yaw  cpav  <v 

likewise  #«noa, 


§  85.  VERBS  WHICH  WANT  THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD 
ROOTS. 

216.  —  Many  verbs  want  the  second  tenses,  and  consequently 
the  second  and  third  roots.  (198,  Obs.  7,  N.  B.)  These  are  as 
follows  : 

RULE  1.  Pure  verbs  want  the  second  root. 

jEJxc.  1.  The  following  primitives  are  excepted  :  yoao,  Gttdco, 
cu,  7^#£co,  dovrtsG),  XTVTZSW,  Qiysco,  TIITVSM,  Gtvys'w,  TOQSCO, 
&OQ8CQ,  arsQk'w,  (7^/ca,  dalm,  xalw,  and   a  few  others. 
has  the  third  root  axo,  but  no  second. 
Exc.  2.  A  few  dissyllables  in  /co  and  von  have  the  second  and 
the  third  root  the  same  as  the  first. 

Note  1.  Several  of  these  are  reckoned  with  anomalous  verbs,  §  117. 
Some  verbs  derive  their  second  and  third  roots  from  obsolete  presents  ; 
sffch  as,  ctlgio)  and  many  verbs  in  dvo)  and  dvo^a^  for  which  see  the 
same  section. 

RULE  2.  Derivatives  in  svco,  d£co,  it^co,  alva, 
vva,  want  the  second  root. 

Note  2.  Primitives,  in  these  terminations,  usually  have  the  second 
root. 

Obs.  1.  Several  verbs  which  have  no  second  root,  and  conse- 
quently no  second  aorist  in  the  first  conjugation,  derive  the  sec- 
ond aorist  active  and  middle  from  forms  in  the  second  conjuga- 
tion ;  thus,  dvco,  2  a.  edvv,  from  /JTMI;  flawed,  2  a.  fi^jyy,  from 
BHMI;  yr/vcoGxco,  2  a.  tyvwv,  from  /TV^QM/,  derived  from 


065.  2.  Many  verbs  not  included  under  the  above  rules  never 
use  the  second  tenses  ;  others  have  them  only  in  the  passive 
voice  ;  others  again  are  used  in  these  tenses  only  by  certain  writ- 


THE   TENSE-ROOT.  105 

ers. — In  such  a  variety  of  usage,  it  is  proper  to  assume  that  all 
verbs  not  included  in  the  above  classes  form  the  second  and  third 
roots  according  to  the  rules  in  §§83,  84. 


§  86.  THE  TENSE-ROOT. 

. — The  TENSE-ROOT  is  that  part  which  re 
mains  unchanged  in  all  parts  of  the  same  tense.    It 
consists  of  all  that  precedes  the  termination,  ex- 
cept the  augment. 

Obs.  1.  In  some  of  the  tenses,  certain  letters  are  inserted  be- 
tween the  verb-root  and  terminations.  These  are  called  signs  of 
the  tenses  to  which  they  belong,  because  they  serve  to  distinguish 
these  tenses  from  others. 

The  TENSE-SIGNS  added  to  the  verb-root,  form  the  tense^root 
in  these  tenses  ;  and,  prefixed  to  the  terminations,  they  form  the 
tense-endings,  232-2.  Hence,  in  the  tenses  which  have  no  sign, 
the  verb-root  alone  is  the  tense-root,  and  the  termination  alone  is 
the  tense-ending  ;  as,  s-hn-or.  ( Obs.  4.) 

t218. — The  tense-signs,  together  with  the  tenses  to  which  they 
long,  are  exhibited  in  the  following — 

TABLE    OF    TENSE-SIGNS. 

1.  In  mute  and  pure  verbs,  the  tense-signs  are  as  follows 

Act.  Mid.  Pass. 

Future,  -a-  -G-  -itycy- 

1  Aorist,  -cr-  -<y-  -#- 

2  Future,  -rfi- 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.,       -  -  or  -K- 

2.  In  liquid  verbs,  the  tense-signs  are  as  follows  : 
Future,  '    -g-  -€-  -^tf- 

1  Aorist,  -&- 

2  Future,  -jytf- 
Pferf.  and  Pluperf.,       -x- 

Obs.  2.  If  the  characteristic  be  a  ;r-mute  or  a  x-mute,  tho 
sign  of  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  active  is  the  spiritus  asper  ('), 
which,  combining  with  the  .mute  before  it  (43-3),  changes  n  or 
$  into  <p  ;  x  or  y  into  /.  But  when  the  characteristic  is  <p  or  #, 
the  spiritus  asper  disappears. 

5* 


106 


THE   AUGMENT. 


!87. 


Obs.  3.  If  the  characteristic  is  a  vowel,  or  a  r-inute,  or  a  li- 
quid, the  sign  of  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  active  is  x. 

Obs.  4.  In  all  the  tenses,  except  those  in  the  preceding  table, 
i.  e.  in  the  second  aorist  through  all  the  voices, — the  second  per- 
fect and  second  pluperfect  -active,  and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect 
passive, — and  also,  in  liquid  verbs,  the  first  aorist  active  and  mid- 
dle, the  tense-root  and  the  verb-root  are  always  the  same.  So 
also  in  the  present  and  imperfect  in  all  voices. 

Exc.  But  irregular  verbs,  and  those  which  fall  under  the  Ex- 
ceptions and  Observations,  §  82,  have  the  tense-root  in  the  present 
and  imperfect  different  from  the  verb-root ;  though,  like  other 
verbs,  it  consists  of  all  that  precedes  the  termination  in  the  present 
indicative.  Thus,  for  example,  in  ^acrcrco,  the  tense-root  in  the 
present  and  imperfect  is  ftQUGG,  while  the  verb-root  is  nQtiy.  In 
/.afipavG),  the  tense-root  of  the  present  and  imperfect  is  hapfidv, 
while  the  verb-root  is  A//^  ;  and  so  of  others. 

219. WORDS    FOR    PRACTICE    ON    THE    PRECEDING    RULES. 


[In  the  following  list 
the  kind  of  verbs — form 
give  the  rule  for  each.] 

I  strike. 
,  I  say. 
1  rejoice. 

67181QG),  I  SOW. 

tQtcpG),  I  nourish, 
dyw,  I  lead. 
XQa^co,  I  cry  aloud, 
fidllco,  I  cast. 
riEi&co,  I  persuade, 
aweco,  I  praise, 
dpetfico,  I  change. 
aQoco,  I  plow. 
,  I  see. 


of  verbs,  tell  the  characteristic,  the  root,  and 
the  second  and  the  third  root  (if  in  use),  and 


I  fear. 


I  leave. 
I  eat. 
,  I  fold. 
o),  I  owe. 
I  seize. 

I  do. 

),  I  say. 
(pawco,  I  show.  • 

w,  I  plunder. 

I  awake. 
I  sacrifice. 
,  I  call. 
I  shave. 


I  turn. 
I  pollute. 
I  send. 
I  assign. 
I  remain. 

I  make. 

,  /  send. 

I  divide. 

),  I  try. 

I  sprinkle. 

,  I  burn. 


220.— §  87.  II.  THE  AUGMENT. 

1.  The  augment  is  a  prefix  joined  to  the  root  in 
the  preterite  tenses. 

2.  There  are  two  kinds  of  augments,  the  temporal  and  sylla- 
bic. 


§88.  THE   AUGMENT.  107 

3.  The  temporal  augment  is  used  when  the  root  begins  with 
a  vowel  or  diphthong,  and  lengthens  the  initial  vowel. 

4.  The  syllabic  augment  is  used  when  the  verb  begins  with  a 
consonant,  and  prefixes  a  syllable  to  the  root. 

AUGMENTED    TENSES. 

5.  The  imperfect  and  aorists  have  the  augment 
in  the  iudicative  only.     The  perfect,  pluperfect, 
and  paulo-post-future,  retain  it  through  all  the 
moods. 

6.  The  present  and  future  have  no  augment. 


221.— §88.  RULES  FOR  THE  AUGMENT. 

1.  If  the  verb  begins  with  a  consonant,  the  aug- 
ment 8  is  prefixed;  as,  TVKTCO,  ZTVJITOV ;  qinTG), 

tQQLTTTOV,  43—5. 

_  2.  The  perfect  reduplicates  the  initial  consonant 
before  s  ;  as,  rvjircoy  perfect  Tsrvcpa. 

Exc.  1.  The  aspirate  reduplicates  its  own 
smooth ;  as,  ^av^a^coy  perf.  T£&av{iaxa  ;  cpaivco, 
perf.  nscpayxa,  43-4. 

Exc.  2.  Verbs  beginning  with  Q,  yv,  cp&,  or  o 
before  or  after  a  consonant,  do  not  reduplicate  : 
thus, 

Q  QlTtTG)  SQQlCptt 


yv 


en 

at 


Obs.  1.  Sometimes  also  verbs  beginning  with  xr,  and  nt,  d 
not  reduplicate  ;  as, 


a  xa)  extinct 

717  7TTOSO)  STtTOTjXa 

And  sometimes,  though  rarely,  those  beginning  with  ft,  fiL 


108  THE   AUGMENT.  §88. 

3.  When  the  perfect  reduplicates  the  initial 
consonant,  the  pluperfect  receives  a  new  augment  ; 
as, 

ware*)  isrvcpa  erervcpew 

Otherwise  not  ;'  as, 


4.  If  the  verb  begins  with  a,  8,  o  ;  or  with  av, 
at,  01,  the  initial  vowel  is  changed  into  its  own 
long,  and  *  of  the  diphthong  is  subscribed;  as, 


avvco 


COTTCC^OV 


v^d 


avvco 


OMl^CO 


tfze 


eot 


Exc.  1.  £  is  often  changed  into  its  own  diph- 
thong; as, 

s  co  I  have 


The  verbs  which  change  e  into  si  are  the  following  :  Idco, 
e^Ojttot,  £\h'£co,  s'A/tftfGo,  &xoo,  gAx&co,  ekxvco,  eWw,  floo,  itTtopai, 
STIC*)  (this  verb  retains  the  augment  through  all  the  moods),  4>aco, 
£()Sto,'$(Mi(iQ,  SQTIV^CO,  IQVCO,  sGTtjXG),  ficmctoo,  l^oo,  and  fco,  20. 

jExc.  2.  If  the  verb  begins  with  to,  the  8  is  un- 
changed and  the  o  augmented  ;  as, 


So  also  some  2d  pluperf.  active  ;  viz.,  from  the  2d  perf.  e 
pluperf.  IcoTyTisiv  ;  —  sowa,  scpxsw  ;  —  sogya, 


Exc.  3.  Jfe,  I  blow;  dico,  I  hear  ;  0fyft&?<?<i>,  /am  unused  ; 
dt]di£o(A,ai,  I  loathe  ;  retain  the  initial  vowel  unchanged  ;  as  also 
some  verbs  derived  from  OMO$,  oivog,  olcovog,  and  0^^  ;  as,  otV/fco, 
I  smell  of  wine,  o'irn&v  ;  and  also  the  2d  perfect  active  when  the 
root  begins  with  01  ;  as,  olda,  plup.  oi'dew. 

5.  If  the  initial  vowel  is  not  a,  s,  o  ;  or  av,  CM, 
or,,  it  is  not  augmented  :  but  i  and  v  short  are 
made  long  ;  as, 


CO&CO  CO&OV 


si 


£V  SVQIGXCO 

ov         ovrd^co          ovta^ov 
See  Exceptions,  224-4,  5. 


§  89,  90.  THE  AUGMENT.  109 

222.— §  89.  AUGMENT  OF  COMPOUND  VERBS. 

1!  When  the  verb  is  compounded  with  a  pre- 
position, the  augment  comes  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  the  verb  ;  as,  nQoc-qjbQO),  nQoz-s-cptQOv. 

Obs.  I .  The  prepositions  drop  their  final  vowel  before  the  aug- 
ment g;  as,  aTiocpaivoi),  ctTiscpaivov ;  xotra^a^P.co,  xav*fiaD.ov  \ — 
But, 

Obs.  2.  TIBQI  before  s  remains  unchanged  ;  TIQQ  usually  com- 
bines with  it  by  contraction;  thus,  nQoefiqv  becomes  TIQOV^YIV. 
116,11. 

Obs.  3.  When  v,  in  the  prepositions  GVV  and  Ir,  is  changed 
into  another  consonant,  by  the  rules  of  euphony,  46-15,  it  is  re- 
covered when  separated  from  that  consonant,  by  the  augment  £  ; 
thus,  tfwUftfWj  Gwekeyov ;  GvyyQdcpco,  owsyQCUpov ;  Ipfisva),  Ive- 
pevov. 

2.  Verbs  compounded  with  dv$  or  ev,  take  the  augment  aftei 
the  particle,  when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  cc,  £,  o,  or  with 
av,  ai,  01 ;  as,  dvaaQSGrsco,  dvafasarsov  ;  evogxscoj  evaQxeov. 

3.  But  if  the  simple  verb  begin  with  any  other  vowel  or  con- 
sonant, dvg  is  augmented,  and  ev  remains  unchanged  ;  as,  dvGZv- 
£/(»,  fdvGrv^eoVy  dedvGrvfflxa ;  evrvwG),  evTvfflxa. 

4.  Other  compounds  generally  take  the  augment  at  the  be- 
ginning. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

223. — The  exceptions  from  these  rules  are  but  few,  and  will  be 
best  learned  by  practice.  Some  writers  augment  certain  com- 
pound verbs  in  the  beginning,  and  others  in  the  middle ;  while 
other  verbs  are  sometimes  augmented  in  both ;  as,  ImGrapcu,  1 
understand,  rfntaraptp  ;  avoQ&oo,  I  erect,  IIVWQ&OOV  ;  xa&evdw, 
I  sleep,  xa&r]vdov  or  ixd&evdov  ;  fVo^ta'oo,  /  disturb, 


224.— §  90.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  AUGMENT. 

1.  In  the  early  Greek  poets,  the  use  of  the  augment  is  very 
fluctuating,  the  same  word  sometimes  occurring  with  the  aug- 
ment and  sometimes  without  it ;  as,  e^scpsQS  and  £xqp€££,  he  car- 


110  THE  AUGMENT.  §90. 

ried  out  ;  &a@e  and  Idfie,  he  took  ;  I^BV  and  ayw,  he  brought  ; 
Ide'dsxto,  dedsxto,  and  foxro,  he  had  received. 

Obs.  I.  From  the  antiquity  of  the  Ionic,  this  has  been  usually 
considered  a  peculiarity  of  that  dialect  ;  but  it  occurs  frequently 
in  the  Attic  writers,  particularly  in  choruses  ;  as,  crtiib/  for  la-vOi], 
he  was  driven  ;  yeyevqTO  for  fysy&npo,  it  had  been  ;  dvdl.coxa  for 
dvfawxa,  I  have  spent. 

2.  In  Homer  and  Hesiod,  aorists  often  receive  the  reduplica- 
tion, which  remains  through  all  the  moods  ;  thus,  xexdpco  for 
xotjteco,  /  shall  have  laboured  •  J.8kd@£0~&cu  for  kdpeo~&ai,  to  have 
received. 

3.  In  all  dialects,  verbs  beginning  with  1  and  p  frequently 
take  d  or  si  as  the  augment  of  the  perf.  ;  as,  e'ikqqia  for 

have  taken  ;  eipaQTai,  for  ^s^aQrai,  it  has  been  decreed. 

4.  The  Attics  often  change  the  simple  augment  s  into  77,  and 
augment  the  initial  vowels  of  verbs  beginning  with  si  and  sv  ;  as, 
ijdvvdpqv  for  Idwdpyv,  I  was  able;  yxa^ov  for  etxct£09,  /  assimi- 
lated ;  ijv%6pqv  for  8v%6pqv,  I  prayed  ;  ydeiv  for  eidew,  I  knew. 

5.  In  verbs  beginning  with  «,  s,  o,  or  wdth  av,  ai,  01,  the  At- 
tics sometimes  prefix  s  instead  of  the  usual  augment  ;  i.  e.  they 
use  the  syllabic  instead  of  the  temporal  augment  ;  as,  ea%a  for 
rfea  ;  edkcoxa  for  /^ooxcc.     Sometimes  they  use  both  ;  as,  OQUCO, 
I  see,  SCOQMOV,  scoQaxa. 

ATTIC   REDUPLICATION. 

6.  When  the  verb  begins  with.  a,  £,  or  o,  followed  by  a  con 
sonant,  the  first  two  letters  are  sometimes  repeated  before  the  or- 
dinary augment.     This  is  called  the  Attic  Reduplication  ;  thus, 

I  assemble  rffSQxcc,  Attice, 

I  vomit  r^xa 

I  smell  wda  od-G)da 

I  dig 


Obs.  2.  The  pluperfect  sometimes  takes  anew  augment  on  the 
initial  vowel  of  the  reduplication  ;  thus,  ax-//xocc,  qx-yxoav. 

Obs.  3.  This  form  of  the  verb  frequently  changes  a  long  vowel 
or  diphthong  into  a  short  or  doubtful  vowel  in  the  third  syllable  ; 
thus,  dlfjhya  for  j^Uupg,  and  ub'ihppai  for  J/AfcY/t/ioct,  from  dfaicpco  ; 
dy.ijxoa  for  /;xoa,  from  dxovco. 

7.  Rule.  The  simple  augment  is  confined  to  the  indicative 
mood  ;  the  reduplieation  remains  in  all  the  moods. 


§91. 


TERMINATIONS. 


Ill 


225.— §91.  IE.  THE  TERMINATIONS. 

1.  The  TERMINATIONS  are  parts  of  the  verb  added  immediately 
to  the  tense-root,  and  which,  by  their  changes,  serve  to  distinguish 
the  voices,  moods,  numbers,  and  persons.     These  are  different  in 
the  two  conjugations. 

2.  The  terminations  in  the  first  conjugation   consist  of  two 
parts — the  mood-vowel,  and  final  letters. 

The  mood-vowel  distinguishes  the  mood  and  connects  the  final 
letters  with  the  tense-root.  The  final  letters  distinguish  the  voices, 
numbers,  and  persons. 

3.  The  mood-vowel  is  the  first  letter  of  the  termination,  and  in 
the  indicative,  is  always  short  or  doubtful  except  in  the  1st  and 
2d  pluperfect,  which  has  always  et, — in  the  subjunctive,  it  is  al- 
ways long — in  the  optative,  always  a  diphthong. 

4.  The  final  letters  are  of  two  classes, — Primary  and  Second- 
ary ;  the  former  are  used  in  the  indicative  mood  in  the  primary 
tenses,  and  the  latter,  in  the  secondary  (199-3).     Also,  the  pri- 
mary final  letters  are  always  used  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and 
the  secondary  in  the  optative. 

226.   TABLE    OF   FINAL   LETTERS. 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 


Primary. 

1.  2.  3. 

Sing,     o  ig  i 

Dual.     —         tov  tov 

Plural,  UBV        IB  VTGI 


3. 


Secondary. 

1.  2. 

Sing,      v,  ill, — ,     g 
Dual.     —  rov      rriv 

Plural,  uw  re        v,  aav,  BV 


MIDDLE    AND    PASSIVE. 


Primary. 
1.  2.         3. 

Sing,     pat,        GCU      tai 


Dual, 
Plural, 


G&OV   G&OV 
G&S      vim 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


Secondary. 
1.  2. 


3. 

GO.          tO 
G&OV     G&tJV 
G&S        V1Q 


5.  The  mood-vowels  and  final  letters  combined  form  the  ter- 
mination in  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  and  optative  moods  through 
the  whole  verb,  except  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect,  middle  and 
passive,  which,  having  no  mood-vowels,  annex  the  final  letters  im- 
mediately to  the  root 

The  following  table  shows  the  mood-  vowels  and  final  letters, 
both  separate  and  combined. 


112 


TERMINATIONS. 


§91. 


227.    ACTIVE   VOICE. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Primary. 

Present  and  Future. 

Mood-vowels  and  final  letters  separate.  The  same  combined. 

Sing,     o-o  8-ig  8-1  co  sig  8i 

Dual.     —  8-rov         .  s-rov  srov         MOV 

Plural,  o-u8v          8-T8  o-vrGi 


opev 
First  and  Second  Perfect. 


Sing,  a- 
Dual.  — 
Plural,  a-pev 


a-g 

a-tov 

a-rs 


8- 
a-rov 


a 


8ig 

8ZOV 

ere 

ag 

axov 

are 


Secondary. 
Imperfect  and  Second  Aorist. 


Dual.     — 
Plural.  co-fi8v 


CO-VTGl 


ri^ov 
copev        qrs 


8 

arov 


Sing. 

o-v 

8-g 

s~ 

ov 

8g 

e(v) 

Dual. 

"  — 

8-rov 

8-rTJV 

— 

8TOV 

SWjV 

Plural. 

o-psv 

8-rS 

o-v 

opev 

8TS 

ov 

First  Aorist. 

Sing. 

a- 

a-g 

£- 

a 

ag 

8 

Dual. 

— 

a-rov 

d-rqv 

— 

arov 

arr^v 

Plural. 

a-pev 

a-rs 

a-v 

apsv 

are 

av 

First  and  Second  Pluperfect. 

Sing. 

81-V 

ei-g 

81- 

£IV 

8ig 

81 

Dual. 

— 

si-rov 

8l-Tr]V 

— 

8VTOV 

siiriv 

Plural. 

8l-fJLSV 

8L-T8 

si-Gar 

81118V 

sire 

siGav 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

All  the  Tenses. 

Sing. 

co-o 

w-ig 

W-l 

CO 

rig 

n 

COGl 


OPTATIVE    MOOD. 

All  the  Tenses  except  the  First  Aorist. 

Sing,     oi- iii  01- g  01-  oiju          oig  01 

Dual.     —  oi-rov         ol-rqv       —  OITOV        oirqv 

Plural,  oi- per         oi-rs  oi-8v          oi^sv        oits          oiev 

The  First  Aorist  Optative  has  at,  instead  of  ot  for  its  mood-vowels. 

6.  In  this  table  the  indicative  mood-vowel  o,  and  the  subjunc- 
tive oo,  combining  with  the  final  letter  -o  makes  co ;  and  with 
-VTGI  they  make  OVGI  and  coot, ;  §  6,  Rules  8,  16,  and  18. 


§91. 


TERMINATIONS. 


113 


228.    MIDDLE   AND   PASSIVE. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Primary. 
Present  and  Futures. 


Mood-vowels  and  final  letters  separate. 
Sing,     o-jjiai         E-GCU        e-rcu          opcu 
Dual.     6-p,£&ov     e-G&ov     e-G&ov       ope&ov 
Plural.  6-[i£&a      e-G&e       o-vrai        ope&a 

%      Secondary. 
Imperfect  and  Second  Aorist  Middle. 


The  same  combined. 


77  (7) 
EG&OV 


erai 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural,  o-pe&a 


e-Go 


e-ro 


E-G&S          O-VTO 

First  Aorist  Middle. 
a-GO         a-to 
a-G&ov 
a-G&e       a-vro 


£G$OV 

EG&E 
aGo 


ovrai 


ero 


ovro 


aro 


Sing. 

Dual,     w-peftov 

Plural,  ov-pe&a 


avro 


qrcu 


1JG&8 


03V7CU 


Sing.     d-[iqv 
Dual.     d-[A€&ov 
Plural,  d-fis&a      a-G 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

All  the  Tenses. 

G)flCU 

II-G&OV     TI-G&OV 
q-G&e       w-vrat 

OPTATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  and  Futures,  also  2d  Aorist  Middle. 
Sing,     oi-prp        ot-Go        oi-to          olurp        oio  (7) 
Dual.     Ql-[te&0ft   OI-G&OV    OI-G&TIV      oifis&ov    CHG&OV 
Plural,  oi-fis&a      OI-G&E      ot-vro         oyte&ii     OIG&S         oirro 
The  First  Aorist  Optative  has  ai  instead  of  ot  for  its  mood-vowels. 

7.  In  the  second  person  singular,  EGCU,  in  combining,  elides  <y, 
leaving  ecu,  and  then  contracts  the  concurrent  vowels  into  ??  (116, 
Exc.  3).     So  also  r^ca  becomes  qcu,  and  then  y  (116,  R.  \dii). 
So  EGO  becomes  eo,  contracted  ov  (116,  R.  ii) ;  aGo  becomes  ao, 
contracted  co  (116,  R.  vii.  1) ;  and  OIGO,  eliding  G,  becomes  ow, 
without  contraction. 

8.  In  the  passive  voice,  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  have  no 
mood-vowels,  but  annex  the  final  letters  (which  in  this  case  are 
the  terminations)  immediately  to  the  root,    270-10.      Also,  the 
first  and  second  aorists,  in  the  indicative,  as  a  termination  prefix 
•jy,  and,  in  the  optative,  e^,  to  the  secondary  final  letters  of  the 
active  voice,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  table,  231. 

9.  The  final  letters  and  mood-vowels  of  the  imperative,  infini- 
tive, and  participles,  will  be  seen  combined  in  the  following  tables. 


TABLES-  OF  TERMINATIONS. 


§92. 


§  92.  TAJ3LES  OF  TERMINATIONS. 

229.  —  I.   ACTIVE   VQICE. 

INDICATIVE. 

Primary  Tenses. 

Pres.  and  Fut 

1st  and  2d  Perfect. 

S.  -co        -8i$      -ei 

-a       -ag     -e  ^ 

D.             -erov   -erov 

-aroy  -aroy 

P.  -opey    -ere     -OVGI 

-apey  -are   -aGi 

Secondary  Tenses. 

Imperf.  and  2d  Aor. 

1st  and  2d  Pluperfect. 

1st  Aor. 

S.  -oy       -eg       -e 

-eiy     -8i$     -ei 

-a        -ag       -e 

D.             -eroy    -sri^v 

-eirov  -eiryy 

-aroy   -drriv 

P.  -Ofiey    -ere     -oy 

-etpey  -eire   -eiGav 

-apey  -are      -ay 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

S.  -co        -yg       -y 

The  same  as  first 

The  same  as  first 

D.             -yroy   -yrov 

column. 

column. 

P.  -co^£>  -lyre     -COGI. 

OPTATIVE. 

S.  -oip     -oig     -01 

The  same  as  first 

-aim     -aig     -ai 

r 

D.             -oiroy  -oiryv 

column. 

-airoy  -airqv 

P.  -oipev   -oire    -oiev 

-aipev  -aire    -aiev 

IMPERATIVE. 

S.             -e         -era 

-oy        -drco 

D.            -eroy    -e'rwv 

The  same  as  first 

-aroy    -drcoy 

P.             -ere      -e'rcoGav 

column. 

-are      -arcoGav, 

/ 

or  -ovrow 

or  -avrwv 

-BIV 


INFINITIVE. 


N.  -cov      -ovca  -ov 
G.  -ovrog  -oi'Gqg,  &c. 


-at 


-ag 


-aGa  -av 


PARTICIPLES. 

-co^     -vTa     -6$ 

-orog  -viag  -orog    -ayrog  -aGiyg  -ayrog 

Obs.  In  this  table,  the  terminations  in  the  first  column  belong  to  the 
present,  imperfect  indicative,  future,  and  2d  aorist ;  all  those  in  the 
2d,  to  the  first  and  second  perfect  and  pluperfect ;  and  all  those  in  the 
3d,  to  the  1st  aorist. 


§92. 


TABLES   OF   TERMINATIONS. 


115 


230. — II.    MIDDLE   VOICE. 
INDICATIVE. 

Primary  Tenses. 

MIDDLE    AND    PASSIVE. 

Pres.  and  Fut 
S.   -opai        -??  -srai 

D.    -OUe&O*     -8G&OV  -EG\)OV 

P.  -<tye£#«      -8G&8          -ovrai 


Secondary  Tenses. 


Imperfect  and  2d  Aorist.' 


S. 

D. 

P.  -6(*8&a     -8G&8 


S.   -oofiat       -y 
D.  -copt-fto?   - 
P. 


-apeftov 


-ero 
-ovro 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1st  Aorist. 

-co  -aro 


-avro 


-covzcu 


The  same  as  first  column. 


S.   -ofayr       -oio 
D.  -oifwd'ov   -oiG&or 


OPTATIVE. 
-OtTO 


-aifis&ov     -CUG&OV 
P.  -olfis&a     -ot,G&e        -oivro       -aipe&a      -CUG&S       -aivro 


S. 
D. 
P. 


IMPERATIVE. 

-OV  -SG&W 

-EG&OV 


-GU 


-CtG&CO 


-8G&CU 


INFINITIVE. 

I 

PARTICIPLES. 

-cipevog 


N.  -oftsvog    -i 

G.  -opsvov    -ojjiwqg    -OJJLSVQV        -aji^vov       -aftwrfg     -a^vov 

Obs.  In  this  table  of  the  middle  voice,  the  terminations  of  the 
perfect  and  pluperfect  are  omitted,  being  the  same  throughout 
as  those  of  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  passive  on  the  next  page. 


116 


TABLES   OF   TERMINATIONS. 


§92. 


231. — III.   PASSIVE   VOICE. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Primary  Tenses. 


PASSIVE   AND   MIDDLE. 

Perfect. 


S.  -pat, 

D.  - 

P.  -j 


-Gai      -rat, 

-G&OV     -( 

-G&e 

Secondary  Tenses. 
Pluperfect. 

-GO        -ro 
-G&OV    -G&TIV 
-vro 


1st  and  2d  Aorists. 

-ns       -n 

-qrov 


Sf  7 

.  -pevog  co 

D.  -[isvco 
P.-) 


\XQV 

qre 


rpov 

OOGl 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
-00 


-rpov 


-year 


-y 

-IjTOV 
-COGl 


OPTATIVE. 


S.  -nwog 

D.-fA 

p  -/ 


S. 
D. 
P. 


8^g       etq 
eiqrov    eirfiip 


-stpov 


IMPERATIVE. 

-GO  -G&CO 

-G&OV      -G&GW 

-G&coGav 

INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 


-qzs 


M. 


F.        K 


-perov 


M. 

-sig 
-svtog 


R 


-wrog 


For  the  terminations  of  the  present,  imperfect,  1st,  2d,  and  3d 
futures  of  the  passive  voice,  see  the  terminations  in  the  first  column 
of  the  table  on  the  preceding  page. 


,  93.  FORMATION   OF  TENSES.  1 17 


232.—  §  93.  FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES  IN  MUTE 
AND  PURE  VERBS. 

1.  Each  tense  consists  of  its  proper  root,  and 
tense-ending,  together  with  the  augment  prefixed 
in  the  augmented  tenses. 

Obs.  1.  The  2  future  passive,  and  2  aorist  add  the  tense-end- 
ings to  the^  second  root,  the  2  perfect  and  2  pluperfect  active,  to 
the  third  root,  and  all  others  to  the  first. 

Exc.  TQSTZCO,  r^gqpco,  and  (rrpt'qpco,  in  the  perfect  and  pluper- 
fect passive,  have  the  second  root,  tfreyyo)  and  xm9w,  in  the  2 
perfect  active,  have  sometimes  the  first,  instead  of  the  third  root. 
/TATTOO,  xkeTiTO),  TQS'TZW,  ta'ya},  and  TQSCpco,  in  the  perfect  and  plu- 
perfect active,  change  e  of  the  first  root  into  o. 

2.  The  tense-endings  consist  of  the  tense-signs  (218)  and  ter- 
minations united  ;  and  when  there  is  no  tense-sign,  the  termina- 
tion alone  is  also  the  tense-ending,  as  exhibited  in  the  following 
table. 

TABLE    OF    TENSE-ENDINGS. 

Tense.          Active.  Middle.  Passive. 

1  Future,    -ff-co  (liq.  -£-oo)  -ff-oftat  (liq.  -s-opai) 

2  Future, 


1  Aorist,  -a-a  (liq.  -a)  -6-dpr]v  (liq.  - 

2  Aorist,  -ov  -opqv  -t\v 
Perfect,  -x-«,  or  --a,  235,  R.I.  -pai 

Pluperf.  -x-£w,  or  --eiv  -^v 

2  Perfect,  -a  - 

2  Pluperf.  -£M>  - 

Fut.-Perf.  or  Paulo-post-future  -G-opcu 

233.  —  GENERAL  RULES. 

KULE  1.  The  imperfect  is  formed  from  the  pre- 
sent by  prefixing  the  augment  and  changing  CD 
into  ov,  and  O/LICCI,  into  our^v  ;  as,  TVTGTG},  ^ 


RULE  2.  All  tenses  except  the  present  and  im- 
perfect, add  the  tense-endings  to  the  proper  root 
(232,  01)8.  1),  and  prefix  the  augment  in  the  pre- 
terite tenses,  as  follows  : 


118 


FORMATION   OF   TENSES. 


,94. 


Future. 

1  Aorist. 

2  Aorist. 
Perfect. 

Pluperf. 
2  Perf. 


234. — SPECIAL   RULES   FOR   EACH   TENSE. 

1.  Active  Voice. 
Add  (jco  to  the  1st  root. 

Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -a a  to  the  1st  root. 
Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -w  to  the  2d  root. 
Augment,  reduplicate,  and  add  -xa  or  -a  to  the  1st  root 

235,  R.  1. 
Augment,  reduplicate,,  repeat  the  augment,  and  add 

-xsiv  or  -sly  to  the  1st  root. 
Augment,  reduplicate,  and  add  -a  to  the  3d  root. 


2  Pluperf.  Augment,  reduplicate,  repeat  the  augment,  and  add 
-sw  to  the  3d  root. 

2.  Middle  Voice. 
Future.       Add  -copai  to  the  1st  root. 

1  Aorist.     Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -Ga^v  to  the  1st  root. 

2  Aorist.     Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -o^v  to  the  2d  root. 
The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future-perfect,  are  the  same  as  in 

the  Passive  Voice. 

3.  Passive  Voice. 

1  Future.    Add  -ft/jGopcu  to  the  1st  root. 

2  Future.    Add  -//erotica  to  the  2d  root. 

1  Aorist.  Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -&qv  to  the  1st  root. 

2  Aorist.  Prefix  the  augment,  and  add  -yv  to  the  2d  root. 
Perfect.  Augment,  reduplicate,  and  add  -pai  to  the  1st  root. 
Pluperf.  Augment,  reduplicate,  repeat  the  augment,  and  add 

-priv  to  the  1st  root. 
Fut.  Perf.   Augment,  reduplicate,  and  add  -aopai  to  the  1st  root. 


235.— §  94.  SPECIAL  RULES  FOE,  MUTES. 

RULE  1.  When  the  characteristic  is  a  ^r-mute  or 
a  #-mute,  the  perfect  active  is  formed  by  adding 
-c-a,  and  the  pluperfect  by  adding  -c-s«/;  all 
others  add  -#«,  -xtw  (218,  Obs.  2,  3)  ;  thus, 

Root  keirt-    perf.  l&jieta~-a     combined 

pluperf.  l%,8-&eMf--&# 

Root  Tifox-   perf.  nz-nkw- -a 

pluperf.  irts-TthM- -EIV 


§  95.  FORMATION   OF  TENSES.  119 

RULE  2.  When  the  characteristic  is  a  T-nmte, 
it  is  rejected  before  a  consonant  in  the  active  and 
the  middle  voice,  and  changed  into  a  in  the  pas- 
sive; thus, 

Active,    rtel&oo,  Root  7t8i&-  Fut.      TIEI-GCO      perf. 
Middle,  Fut.      mi-copai  1  Aor. 

Passive,  1  fat.  TieiG-^GOfiai  1  Aor.  fa&G-4hp  perf. 

Exc.  The  r-mute  is  rejected  in  the  passive  also,  when  it  comes 
before  a  (44-8) ;  as,  neneiGai  for  neTtei&Gcu,  or  after  a  liquid ; 
as,  718Q&-G),  1  future  passive  7TSQ-&i'jGO[Acu,  perfect  Tti-nsQ 
Also,  a  jr-mute,  after  a  liquid,  is  rejected  before  pai ;  as,  reQ 
perfect  passive  re-veQ-pai. 

Obs.  Ilev&G),  GSVG),  Tfv/eo,  and  /€«  (239-2),  have  v  instead 
of  ev  before  a  consonant  in  the  passive ;  as,  nvG^&fiGoiia 
(240,  R.  2),  &c. ;  qpet^oo  has  either  v  or  ev ;   as, 


236.— §  95.  METHOD  OF  FORMING  THE  TENSES. 
1.  lYco,  I  honour. 

This  verb,  requiring  no  insertion  or  change  of  letters  for  the 
sake  of  euphony,  affords  the  simplest  example  for  showing  the 
formation  of  tenses.  A  second  and  third  root  (n),  and  the 
tenses  formed  from  them,  are  here  assumed,  though  they  do  not 
exist  in  the  verb,  to  show  the  manner  in  which  these  tenses  are 
formed. 

Active.  Middle.  Passive. 


Pres. 

f 

Imp. 

s-ri-ov 

Fut. 

tl-G-G) 

2  Fut. 

1  Aor. 

H 

2  Aor. 

8-TL-OV 

Perf. 

tz-vi-x-a 

Pluperf. 

l-re-ri-x-i 

2  Perf. 

ts-vi-a 

2  Pluperf. 

te&vfap 

P.  P.  Fut. 

TS-4l-(ACU 

s-rs-ri-^r 


rs-ri-G-opai 


120  FORMATION   OF  TENSES.  §95. 

The  following  examples  fall  under  235,  Rule  1.  They  are 
exhibited  with  the  parts  divided,  and  then  combined,  to  show  the 
effect  of  the  rules  of  euphony,  §  6,  in  combining  the  parts.  It 
will  be  a  profitable  exercise  for  the  pupil  to  apply  these  rules  for 
every  change. 

2.  The  characteristic  a  Tzr-mute. 

keiaco,  I  leave. 
Roots,  1.  keiTt-,  2.  Awr-,  3.  hom-. 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 

Parts  divided.  Parts  combined. 

Pnes. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor.  'l-'kin-ov  '&ITIOV 
Perf. 

Pluperf.  8-fa'teia--4& 

2  Perf.  1'" 

2  Pluperf.  l-l 

MIDDLE    VOICE. 

Pres. 
-  Imperf. 
Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
P.  P.  Fut. 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 

Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2  Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
P.  P.  Fut. 


§95.'  FORMATION  OF  TENSES.  121 

/ 

3.  The  characteristic  a  #-mute. 

flrfe'xco,  I  fold. 
Roots,  1.  frtax-,  2.  fldocx-,  3.  n\ox-. 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 

Parts  divided.  Parts  combined. 


Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut.   - 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 

Perf.  jf£ffl<K--€C 

Pluperf.  i-nK-Tikiv,- -zw 

2  Perf. 
2  Pluperf. 


MIDDLE    VOICE- 


Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor.  e-Ttl.ax-opqv 
Perf. 

Pluperf.  * 

P.  P.  Fut. 


Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 
2  Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
P.  P.  Fut. 


PASSIVE    VOICE. 


122        .  FOEMATION   OF  TENSES.  §96. 

4.  The  characteristic  a  r-mute. 

asi&co,  I  persuade. 
This  verb  has  the  first  root  Ttuft,  the  second  m&,  the  third 


7toi&>  and  its  characteristic  being  a  r-mute,  it  comes  under  235, 
Rule  2. 

Active.  Middle.  Passive. 

Pres.  asfa-co 

Imp.  s-Ttsift-o 

Fut.  7T81-G-G)  ftsl-G-OfiCU 

2  Fut. 

1  Aor.  8-rtM-G-a 

2  Aor.  s-TivQ'-ov  s-nvd'-ouiiiv  l-aitf-vy 
Perf. 

Pluperf. 
2  Perf. 
2  Pluperf. 
P.  P.  Fut. 


§96.  SPECIAL  RULES  FOR  PURE  VERBS. 

237.  —  N.  B.     In  the  rules  for  the  Moods  and  Tenses  of  verbs, 
let  it  be  remembered,  that  — 

The  three  short  vowels,         a       s       o 
have  their  own  long,  q       q       oo 

and  their  own  diphthongs,    ai     8i      01 

238.  —  RULE  1.  Verbs  in  dca,  sco,  and  oca,  change 
the  short  vowel  into  its  own  long  before  a  conso- 
nant; as, 

<ptl8foo,  Root  (jptta,  fut.  qp^creo,  perf.  Trscpi^c^  &c. 

|  239.  —  EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  dco  after  s  or  ^  retains  a\  and  hdco  and  qdco 
after  a  vowel  ;  as,  sao}^  eoctico  ;  xoniacd, 
a6co  ; 


Likewise  dissyllables  in  doo  which-  do  not  pass  into  r^ai  ;  as,  xAaco, 
But  those  which  pass  into  r^u  have  ^,  except  cp&dco. 


§  96.  FORMATION   OF   TENSES.  123 

The  following  also  retain  ot;    viz.  dxQodopaij  Tterdco,  dapdco, 

x(>m«co,  and  vcpdco  ;  fkyda  lias  a  or  77. 
2.  Ten  in  f'eo  retain  s;  viz.  cexnoft,  oX/CJ,  a^x/o>,  loo,  jf^a'a,  mxfc'co, 

££6j,  (Ufc'co,  reAe'co,  r^'co. 
Likewise  those  which  form  new  presents  in  vvvo),  vvv\ni^  and  crxoo  ; 

as,  «Wt;eo  and  tvrvfu  from  lea,  «(>£<7xeo  from  apeioo  ;  retain  £. 
Sixteen  in  £00  have  €  or  27  ;  viz.  aidtopou,  atWieo,  dxsofiat,  dkcpeco, 


>TOf£co,  GTEQtco,  cpoQzco,  (fQovcG)  ;  besides  a  few  others 
seldom  used  ;  as,  Korea,  piL-ca,  /O(>€ca. 
>S/^  in  £co  have  6V  ;  viz.  7ive&,  TT&CO,  %£co,  new,  I  floiv  ;  &£  co,  / 
?-WTI;  and  yg'co,  I  swim;  but  ^fc'oa,  /  speak  ;  #€«,  I  place  ; 
and  ^€co,  /  spm,  have  ^. 

3.  In  primitive   verbs,  ooo  retains  o  ;  such  as,  a^oco,  ^000,  idoco, 
Ojwooo,  o^oco.     Likewise  those  which  form  others  in  vvo  and 
(jxco,  have  o  ;  but  tjiose  which  pass  into  copi,  have  co  ;  except 
i;  which  has  o  in  the  1  fut.  and  1  aor.  passive;  as,  do&fj- 


4.  The  anomalous  verbs  xa/ioo  and  xA«/co  change  at  into  av  ;  as, 

xa/eo,  fut.  xavcrco  ;  xAat'co,  xkavGco. 

5.  ^4iQecOj  evQtco,  and  d^fco  (for  6^co),  retain  s  before  #  only  ; 

as,  aiQ/jGco,  aiQefri'iGOftcu,  aiQ&frtjV)  aiQqpcUj  &c. 


240.  —  RULE  2.  Pure  verbs  which  have  e,  or  a 
doubtful  vowel,  or  a  diphthong  before  a  conso- 
nant, in  the  active  and  the  middle  voice,  insert  o 
before  a  consonant  in  the  passive  ;  as, 

Perf.  Act.     1  Fut.  Pass.          1  Aor.  Pass.  Pejf.  Pass. 
dlt-co      ifis-xa  dfaG-&i'jGO[tai, 

ydd-co     ysy&a-xa     ^A 


avv-co       jvv-xa 

nai-co       7iinai-y.cc.      Btuff'&ijffopuu 


So  also  verbs  in  £/co,  £voo,  oioo,  and  ovco. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

241.  —  To  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions  ;  as, 

1.  Five  which  have  8  before  a  consonant  do  not  insert  G  ;  viz. 

aiveco,  tti'/£&),  8(i8  co,  £Q8(tij  oAtco. 

2.  Eight  which  have  a  ;  viz.  dy.Qodopcu,  {tzdopcu,  idopai,  xo- 

ndeo,  OQacOj  nf-igdopai.,  TZZQUG), 


124  LIQUID  VERBS.  §97. 

3.  One  which  has  i ;  viz.  rico. 

4.  Eleven  which  have  v\  viz.  aQTva,  @QVG),  dvcoy  &vco, 

XGMVO),  xoo^voa,  Aveo,  fiyvvco,  QVCO,  IQVGH. 

5.  Seven  which  have  sv ;    viz.  fcvco,  vzvw,  VECO   (^t'croo), 

(TIVBVGW),  QECO  (QEVGCO),  GSVOO,  ^fc'co  (%evGco).     Also  many  verbs 
in  €t'ca,  derived  from  nouns ;  as,  fiaGiksva). 

6.  One  which  has  ov ;  viz.  Aovw,  as,  XotrfhpTOfiOC,  <fec. 

7.  Fourteen  verbs  sometimes  insert  (T  before  a  consonant  in  the 

passive   voice,  and   sometimes   not;  viz.    OCQVG),  dgdoo,  f«a>, 
DMCO,  xaico,  XSQMG),  xvdoy,  xo^fco,  [tvaco,  [trjpvco,  woco,  rtavcoj 


242.^  —  RULE  3.  Verbs  in  6co,  forming  verbs  in 
^  insert  6  before  a  consonant  in  the  passive  voice  ; 
as,  yvcjftt*)  yvcoo&rjGo/Liai,  &c. 


Except  GtQwvvvpi  from  crr^ooo,  and  8lda>[M,  from  5oo>,  which 
have  Grgco&tjGoiMU,  dodrjGOfAcu,  &c. 


FORMING  THE  TENSES  OF  PURE  VERBS. 

243. — The  following  example  shows  the  method  of  forming 
the  tenses  in  pure  verbs.  With  few  exceptions,  having  no  second 
root  (216),  they  have  noa2d  future,  or  2d  aorist;  and  in  the  ac- 
tive voice,  no  2d  perfect,  or  2d  pluperfect. 

Active.  Middle.  Passive. 

Pres.  npd-G)  ri^d-of^ai  rif^d-o^at 

Imperf.  s-TifAa-ov  l-iif^a-o^v 

Fut.  Vl[A,f{-G-CO  7t,[lf]-G-0[4,ai 

1  Aor. 

Perf. 

Pluperf. 

P.  P.  Fut.          T8-Ti[A,?]-G-o[tat,          re-npij-G-opat 


§  97.  LIQUID  VERBS. 

244. — Liquid  verbs  differ  from  mute  and  pure 
verbs  in  forming  some  of  the  tenses,  as  will  ap- 
pear by  the  following — 


§  97.  LIQUID  YEEBS.  125 


SPECIAL  KULES. 


1.  The  future  active  and  middle  shortens  the 
root,  if  it  contains  a  diphthong,  by  rejecting  the 
last  of  the  two  vowels;  and  instead  of  oco  and 
t,  adds  sco  and  sojucct,  contracted  <5  and  ov- 


, 

Verb.  R.  Fut.  Act.  Fut,  Mid. 

IJWVG)  fiev  [tev-eco    contr.  [tev-co,    [tev-eopcu    contr. 

I'civo)  rsiv  rev-sco  rev-co,    rev-sopou  rev-ovpcu 

cpai'i'co  (pair  (pav-eco  <pav-co,  cpav-eopcu  cpav-ovpai 

2.  The  first  aorist  active  and  middle  lengthens 
the  short  root  of  the  future  by  changing  s  into 
^,  and  lengthening  the  doubtful  vowels  ;  and  in- 
stead of  6a  and  odfirjv,  adds  a  and  d/urjv  ;  as, 

*  Verb.  Fut.  1  Aor.  Act  1  Aor.  Mid 


8-fieiv-a 

rewoo  rev-sco  s-vetv-a 

(paivco  cpav-eco  e-yav-a  l-cpar-d[M]v 

Rem.  The  Attics  often  change  a  into  q  ;  as,  eyqva, 


3.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  active,  and  all  the 
the  passive  voice,  except  the  present  and  imper- 
fect, add  the  tense-endings  to  the  second  root  ;  as, 

Verb.      2.  R.  Perf.  Act.     1  Fut.  Pass.     1  Aor.  P.      Perf.  P. 


67ISIQCO, 

cpawco,   cpav,     ns-tyay-xa,  q)av-&fjGO[Acu,    £-<pdv-&rjv, 


Exc.  Verbs  in  pco  form  the  perfect  and  pluper- 
fect active  and  the  1  future,  1  aorist,  perfect,  and 
pluperfect  passive,  from  the  first  root  by  interpos- 
ing r]  before  the  tense-endings  ;  as, 

Verb.      1  R.        Perf.  Act.         1  Fut.  Pass.  1  Aor.  Pass. 

vsp         vs-vefi-tj-xa,      vEp-y^&rjGopcu      l-^f^-^v,  &c 
So  also,  fidkhco  and 


126  .      TENSES   OF   LIQUID   VERBS.  §  97. 

Note.  The  tenses  which  interpose  77  -are,  probably  formed  regularly 
from  obsolete  forms  in  io) ;  thus,  NEMEJl,  vt/LirjGw,  vtvsfiyxa,  <fec.  ; 
but  while  these  tenses,  formed  in  this  way,  have  remained,  the  others 
have  given  place  to  the  liquid  forms  now  in  use.  See  250. 

4.  Dissyllables  in  sivco,  ivcojvvca,  reject  v  before 
a  consonant ;  as, 

teivw,    rav-y    rs-ra-xa,    ra-&)jGO[tai,    l-rd-fryv,    xe-ta-pcu,  <fec. 

XQLVCOy     XQW-,     : 


But  xrewco  and  nliwa  sometimes  retain  v,  sometimes  not. 

245. —  Obs.  Verbs  in  awco  and  woo  commonly  drop  v  before 
the  termination  beginning  with  ^,  and  insert  cr  in  its  stead  ;  as, 
cpawco,  nhvvw,  perf.  pass.  7t8(pa(j^ai,  nm'Lvo 'pou. — They  are  in- 
flected thus : 


Singular, 

Dual,        7i8<y)dG-[ji8\}ov     nstyav-ftov  (54-17) 

Plural, 


Note.  Liquid  verbs  want  the  paulo-post-future  tense. 

FORMING  THE    TENSES   OF   LIQUID   VERBS. 

246. — The  following  examples  show  the  method  of  forming  the 
tenses  of  liquid  verbs,  according  to  the  preceding  rules. 


24  7. — J£WHco,  I  send. 
1  R.  GrsL     2  R.  GraL     3  R.  GroL 

Active.  Middle.  Passive. 

Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2  Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2  Perf. 
2 


§97. 


TENSES  OF  LIQUID   VERBS. 


127 


Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2  Fut. 

1  Aor. 

2  Aor. 
Perf.   •  : 
Pluperf. 
2  Perf. 

2  Pluperf. 


248.  —  (Pat'vG),  I  show. 
1  K.  yaw.     2  R.  yav.     3  R. 

Active.  Middle. 

cpaiv-G) 
l-yaw-ov 
' 


e-cpaw-6pi]v 


Passive. 
(paw-opai 


cpav-s'-o),  w  (pav-8-opcu,  ovfiai 


e-yav-a 
s-cpav-ov 


cpav-tjG-opai 
l-cpdv-qv 


Active. 

Pres. 

T8W-G) 

Imperf. 

8-rew-ov 

Fut. 

18V-S-0), 

CO 

2T?nt 

JP  Lit. 

1  Aor. 

if 

2  Aor. 

wav-ov 

Perf. 

r8-ra-x-a 

Pluperf. 

8-T8-rd-X-8W 

2  Perf. 

T&-TOV-O, 

2  Pluperf. 

8-T8-rOV-8W 

250.—  -Nil 

1  R.  w 

5^, 

Active. 

Pres. 

vs'u-co 

Imperf. 

^ 

Fut. 

mfrfato 

j  W 

2TTnf 

r  UL. 
1  Aor. 

* 
8-V8lp-O, 

2  Aor. 

8-vap-ov 

Perf. 

vs-ve'p-q-x-a 

Pluperf. 

-£^ 

2  Perf. 

r&WM-a 

2  Pluperf. 

S-tS-fQfr&y 

249. — TaW,  T  stretch. 
1  R.  T8iv.     2  R.  rav.     3  R.  rov. 

Middle. 
rew-ofiai 


Passive. 
rsw-opat, 


TCW-JjG-OflCU 

l-rdv-qv 


I  distribute  (244,  Note). 
2  R.  vap.     3  R.  ro^. 

Middle.  Passive. 


ovpai 

Vap-JjG-OfMU 


128  CONTRACTED  VERBS.  §98. 

i 

§98.  CONTRACTED  VERBS. 

251.  —  Verbs  in  -dco,  -s'w,  and  -oco,  contract  the  concurrent 
vowels  in  the  present  and  imperfect  in  all  the  voices,  according 
to  the  general  rules  of  contraction,  116.  See  paradigm,  §  100. 

All  the  concurrences  of  vowels  to  be  found  in  these  verbs,  are 
the  following  ;  viz. 

1.  Verbs  in  -da),  -aw,  -as,  -do,  -dr},  -dei,  -d%,  -doi,  -dov,  =  8. 

contr.  -co,     -a,    -co,    -a,    -a,     -a,     -op,     -co» 

2.  Verbs  in  -e'eo,  -f'co,    -ss,   -so,   -s'q,   -set,  .  -sy,    -s'oi,    -sov,  =  8. 

contr.  -co,     -si,    -ov,   -^,     -si,     -y,     -01,     -ov. 

3.  Verbs  in  -oca,  -oco,  -oe,  -60,   -6q,  -osi,  -6%,    -601,  -6ov,  =  8. 

contr.  -co,     -ov,  -ov,    -co,    -or,    -ot,    -01,     -ov. 

Obs.  1.  Of  the  above  concurrent  vowels  (No.  2),  dissyllables 
in  €oo  contract  only  £8  and  ssi  ;  thus,  tree's,  itkmv,  Tife'sre,  &c.,  are 
usually  contracted  nfai,  n\uv,  Ttteirs,  &c.,  but  Ttklw,  nlJonev, 
&c.,  are  never  contracted.  Exc.  Jew,  to  bind,  commonly  con- 
tracts all. 

Obs.  2.  Four  verbs  in  aco  contract  as  into  77,  and  asi  into  77. 
These  are  £doo,  ftswdcx),  dvtydw,  and  %Qdopai  ;  thus, 

Indie.    £dsig,    £dsi,    £dsrov,    e^asg,    e£as,  &c.     Inf.  £dsw. 
contr.    lyg,       g,       l^jror,      8fl$,      sty,  «    ^v,  &c. 

And  so  of  the  others. 

252.  -  DORIC    AND    IONIC    FORMS. 

065.  8.  The  Dorics,  who  in  other  cases  use  a  for  y,  in  verbs 
make  use  of  ij,  without  i  subscript,  instead  of  all  contractions  of 
asi  and  ssi  ;  as,  OQTJV  for  bgav  ;  xoer^y  for  xoGpsw.  Also,  as 
was  usually  contracted  by  them  into  q  ;  as,  rohpjrs  for  rotydsrs. 

The  Ionic  dialect  often  converts  a,  in  verbs  in  doo,  into  e  ;  as, 

OQSCO,  oQSO^isr,  for  ooaco,  bgdopsv  ;  %Qxsrai  for  %Qdsrai. 

253.  -  HOMERIC    FORM. 

065.  4.  The  Epic  writers,  on  account  of  the  metre,  often  insert 
the  Mndred  long  or  short  vowel  before  the  contracted  vowel  ;  as, 

OQasw,  contr.  OQMV,  Poet.  OQaav  ;  6()aco,  contr.  60eo,  Poet.  O 
Participle  fern,  qfidovaa,  contr.  ^cocra,  Poet,  ^eococrof,  &c. 


This,  from  the  frequency  of  its  occurrence  in  Homer,  is  some- 
times called  the  Homeric  form. 


§98. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE.  129 


Note. — By  a  little  attention  to  practice,  and  applying  the  rules 
(116)  to  the  preceding  contractions,  a  paradigm  of  contract  verbs  is 
unnecessary ;  still  a  table  of  contract  verbs  is  inserted  in  its  place,  258, 
§100. 


254.— EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE. 

1.  The  tense-root  in  the  subjunctive  (being  the  same  as  in  the  indica- 
tive, but  without  the  augment V  is  to  be  prefixed  to  the  "  terminations" 
in  the  optative,  imperative,  infinitive,  and  participles. 

2.  Whenever  the  accent  (')  falls  on  the  termination,  it  is  marked  in 
the  following  table  in  its  proper  place.     When  it  does  not  fall  on  the 
termination,  its  place  will  be  the  third  syllable  from  the  end  of  the 
word,  if  the  last  syllable  be  short,  or  the  diphthong  at,,  which  is  con- 
sidered short.     But  if  the  last  syllable  be  long,  the  accent  will  be  on 
the  syllable  next  the  last ;  as,  rervya,  ttivyo),  <fec. 

3.  In  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  passive,  the  characteristic  7t  in  all 
the  moods  is  put  with  the  termination,  to  show  the  changes  it  undergoes 
by  the  laws  of  euphony,  when  combined  with  the  initial  consonant  of 
the  termination.     In  combining  the  root  in  these  moods  with  the  termi- 
nation, Rules  2,  and  6,  and  17  of  §  6,  must  be  observed.     See  also  §  101, 
10.     But  if  the  tables  of  terminations,  §  92,  and  the  method  of  forming 
the  tenses,  §  93,  are  perfectly  committed  to  memory,  and  rendered  fa- 
miliar ^the  pupil  by  thorough  drilling,  it  will  hardly  ever  be  neces- 
sary to  Take  him  into  this  table  at  all. 

4.  The  numbers  1,  2,  3,  <fcc.,  to  be  found  in  the  following  table,  refer 
to  the  same  numbers,  §  101. 

N".  B.  By  inspection  of  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  termina- 
tions of  the  subjunctive  mood  are  the  same  in  all  the  tenses,  and  those 
of  the  optative  and  imperative  are  nearly  the  same  in  all,  except  in  the 
1  aorist.  Attention  to  this  will  greatly  lessen  the  labour  of  committing 
the  verb  to  memory. 


6* 


130 


TABLE   OF  THE   VERB 


§99. 


255.— §99.  I.  TABLE  OF  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root.           Terminations. 
1.          2.         3. 

PICS.     S.              rVTTT    -00,              -€IS,           -€l, 
D.                                                  -€TOV,       -€TOV, 

P.                     -o/tey,     -ere,       -overt. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root.        Terminations. 
1.          2.        3. 
TWTTT   -co.         -?;s,        -77, 

-TJTOV,      -7)TOV, 
-W/JLCV,    -7JT6,        -OUCH. 

Imp.     S.      f-TVTTT 
D. 

p. 

-Of,        -*s,        -e,4 
-OJJ.GV,     -ere,       -ov. 

Fut.     S.          .Tity 
D. 

p. 

-CO,              -6fS,           -«, 

-eroy,    -erov, 
-o/tey,     -ere,       -ovo*i. 

Wanting. 

1  Aor.  S.         e-rutj/ 
D. 

p. 

-a,          -as,         -e,4 
-arov,    -0,Tt}v, 
-a^ev,    -are,      -av. 

TV^     -co,        -r?s,       -77, 
-T]Tov,    -tyroVt 
-co^uey,   -Tjre,      -coen. 

2  Aor.  S.          e-rwr 
D. 
P. 

-ov,        -es,         -e,4 
-erov,     -errjv, 
-ofj-ey,     -ere,       -o;/. 

•• 

TU7T       -CO,             -?7S,           -|7, 
•       -7JTOV,     -T]TOV, 

-co/xev,   -Tjre,      -cocri. 

Perf.    S.        re-rv(b 
D. 
P. 

-a,          -as,        -6, 

-O.TOV,     -O.TOV, 

-a.jj.sv,    -are,      -atrx^ 

T€*TV(b      "CO,             "7?S,           "'J* 
~7]TOV,     ~f}TOV, 

_-co^€//,  -Tjre,     -cotn.  - 

Plup.  S.     e-re-Ti50 

p. 

-etv,       -ets,       -et, 

..VMT,     -«T.,       -««W. 

2  Perf.  S.        T6-TV7T 
D. 

p. 

-a,          -as,        -e, 
-O.TOV,    -O.TOV, 
-afJLev,    -are,      -acrt. 

^".LSrir 

2  Plup.   S.       C'-TC-TUTT 

D. 

p. 

-f-lTOV,    -eiTTJf, 

• 

§99. 


IN  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


181 


TABLE  OF  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE,  CONTINUED. 


OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1.          2.        3. 

-OlfJLl,       -OlS,1       '01 

-OITOV,  -oiTyv, 

-OlflCV,    -OIT€,     -OlfV. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2.          3. 

-€TOV,  -€TO)V, 
-€T6,      -£T(i)ffGlV. 

INF. 

Term, 
-eiv? 

PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
M.        F.        N. 

N.  -<av,       -ovffa,    -ov, 
G.  -ovroy,  -ownjy,  -ovros, 
D.  -OVTI,     -OVO~TI,   -OVTI,&,C. 

-OITOV,   -OITTJV, 

-oifjiev,  -oiT€,    -oiev. 

Wanting. 

-eiv. 

N.  -ay,        -ouo-a,    »ov, 

G.  -OJTOy,   -OVffTJS,  -OVTOS, 
D.  -OVTI,       -OVffT),     -OVTl,&,C. 

-ai/Jit, 
-aifjL€i 

-ais,      -at, 
-aiTov,  -aiTTjv, 
',  -cure,    -aiev. 

-ov,     -arco, 
•arov,  -artav, 
-are,    -a/roaffav. 

-ai. 

N.  -ay,        -a<ra,     -ay, 
G.  -avroy,  -acr^y,   -avTos, 
D.-avTi,     -do~r],     -avTi,&,C. 

-oip.i, 

-oty,      -oi) 
-OITOV,  -OITTIV, 

,  -OIT€,      -Ol€V- 

-€,            -6TO>, 
-€TOV,   -€TUV, 
"6T€»      -£Tfi)0~Ct,V. 

^ 

N.-e&v,        -ovffa,   -6v, 

G.  -6vTOS,    -OVCTTJS,  -6VTOS, 

D.  -6vTi,     -ovo"y,  -6vTi,&,c. 

-OlfJ.1, 

-OlS,         -Ot,6 
-OITOV,    -OLT1]V, 

-e,        -erco, 

-€TOV,  -€TO)V, 
-€T6,      -€T(i)0~aV. 

--'- 

G.  -oVoy,    -ufay,     -(iroy, 
D.  -oVf,      -uta,      -Jri,&c. 

. 

-OITOV,  -oiTrjv, 

-OlfteV,  -OIT€,      -OlfV. 

-€T€,       -CTCDffaV. 

-eVat. 

N.  -coy,       -via,       -6s, 
G.  -oVoy,    -may,     -oVoy, 
D.  -OTI,       -via,       -6Ti. 

132 


TABLE   OF  THE   VERB 


§99. 


256.     II.  TABLE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. 

StTBJTJNCTIVE. 

Tense-root.               Terminations. 

T-root.     Terminations. 

1.            2.           3. 

1.          2.          3. 

Pres.  S. 

T&ITT    -OfJLOLl,           -?7,8              -€TCU, 

TI/TTT    -WfJ.0.1,         -7?,8           -T^Tat, 

D. 

-6fJL€&ov,  -ea-frov,    -€ff&ov, 

-(a/uL&oi',  "riff&ov,  ^rjff&ov, 

P. 

-««»*     -«*.,     -o™. 

-w*.  '3**-*^ 

Imp.  S. 

6-TU7TT    -SftyV,           -OU,8            -6TO, 

D. 

-6fJL€&OV,    -e(T&OJ>,    -4(rfrf]V, 

P. 

-<fyie&a,     -etr&c,     -ovro. 

Fut.  S. 

Tlty    -0/iat,           -?7,8              -6TCU, 

Tty- 

D. 

-6lJL€&01>,    -Cff&OV,     -Sff&OV, 

Wanting. 

P. 

-6fJ.€&a,     -e<r&e,      -OVTCU. 

1  Aor.  S. 

e-TU^/  ~d.^/f]vt       -w,8          -aro, 

Tty    -W;ua,,      -„«•-    -,«,, 

D. 

-dfj.€&ov,  -afffbov,  -afffrqv, 

-d>[jL&ov,  -rnff&ov,-rn(r&ov> 

P. 

-a^e^a,     -acr&e,     -avro. 

-W*.  -T,^,  -^a.. 

SAor.S. 

e-TU7r  -6/j.ifjy,       -oi;,8       -era, 

TUTT   -ttf/uu,       -?7,8         -Tjrai, 

D. 

-6/UL&OV,  -eo-^oy,  -eo-frnv, 

-(i>luL€^OV,  -rjff&OV,  -T)ff&OV> 

P. 

-^e^a,     -eafte,     -OVTO. 

-c6/ze^a,   -770-^6,  -w^rai. 

Perf.  S. 

T6-TV  -/uL/JLai,         -tyat,      -TTTttt,10 

T6-TU  -[1/J.eVOS  &,         ?}s,        ?7, 

D. 

-'fjifji^ov,  -fySov,  -tySov, 

-^/ieVw  ,  ^TO^TOV, 

P. 

-/ujue^a,   -<£d-e,   -{JL^J/OI  etc"/. 

-fJ.fJt.4vOl  (bfJiSV,  ^T€,    5(Tt. 

10(5) 

Plup.  S. 

4-T€-TV-fJL/J.7)V,        -\l/0,        -1TTO, 

D. 

-IJLfjL&oj',  -^>3ov,  -<p&Tiv, 

P. 

-/^ue&a,  -^)3-e,  -/xfieVot  ^tray. 

10(5) 

P.P.F.S. 

T€-Tty-o,««,       -r;,       -era., 

Te_T     ,_ 

D. 

-6n&ov,  -ea-^oj/j-eo-^oz/, 

Wanting. 

P. 

-(J/ie^a,     -€(T(^6,    -OVTO.I. 

§  99. 


A%*roF,&r 

IN  THE   MIDDLE   VOIOE./^  ^  j  y  ^ g  J  ^ 


TABLE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  VOICE, 


TOED. 


OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1.                  2.          3. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2.          3. 

INF. 

Term. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 

M.       F.   N. 

N.  -6fj.€vos,  -77,  -o?', 
G.  -opevov,  -ijs,  -ovt 

-oi/ue&ov, 

-oiff&ov,  -oio-&r}j/, 

-Ol^UTJV, 

-ptyuedu, 

-OiO,8         -OITO, 

-OLG&OV,  -oia'^rjV) 

-Oiff&€,     tOLVTO. 

Wanting. 

..,.,. 

N.  -6/j.evos,  -77,  -oy, 
G.  -o^aeVoi/,  -775,  -ou, 

-ai/JLTjy,               -ato,8       -atro, 
-cdjjie&a,            -cuafte,   -aivro. 

-at,         -dV&&>, 

.^.,. 

N.  -a/zei/os,  -77,  -oy, 

vjr.  ~UU.€VOV)  ~T]S)  ~OVj 

D.  -ap-tva,  -77,   -y. 

-Ol/J.€&a,                 -01<T&€,     -OiVTO. 

:2r":S0, 

.,•„„. 

G.  -0/j.tvoVj  -fiSy-ovj 

D.  ~Ott6J/6Jj    -77^    ~6>» 

-/^ue'j/co  — 

/J.GV,  €tT]T€,     t(f\aa.v. 

-i|/o,        -<£>f\yw, 

-(f>&OV,        -fyf$(l)Vy 

- 

D.  -ppfry,  -77,  -y. 

-ofjUTJ^, 

-Oi/xe3-o, 

-OtO,8         -OITO, 
-Olff&OV)  -Ol(T&T}Vy 
•Olff&C,    -OIVTO. 

Wanting. 

...... 

Gr.  -0/JL€J/OV,  -Tjy,  -OU, 

D.  -ofj.£v<p,  -77,  -<p. 

134 


TABLE  OF  THE  VERB 


§99 


257.    in.   TABLE  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Tense 

Pres.  S. 
D. 
P. 

INDICATIVE. 

•root.             Terminations. 
1.          2.        3. 

TVTTT  -ofJiai,      -77  ,8        -erai, 

-6fj.€&a,  -eo/^e,  -OVTUI. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root.     Terminations. 
1.          2.        3. 

TVTTT  -ca/Jiai,  •-J7,8        -77Tar, 

-<6fJi€&a,    -7](T&€      -WVTCU. 

Imp.   S. 
D. 
P. 

e-rvTTT  -6jj/riv,     -ou,8      -era, 

-OyU€iO'Clj    -60"(O'6j     -QVTQ. 

1  Fut.  S. 
D. 
P. 

rv^rjff-ofJLait      -77,8        -era:, 

Wanting. 

-6/*e&a,  -eo-fre,  -ovrai. 

2  Fut.  S. 
D. 
P. 

Tvir^ff  -o/j.ai,      -77  ,8        -era:, 

-6(J.€&a,    -€ff&€,    -OVTCU. 

Wanting. 

1  Aor.  S. 
D. 
P. 

e-rv(f>&  -t]vy         -TJS,       -77, 
-T}TOV,  -rjrrjj/, 

-TJTOJ',      -T}TOV, 

2  Aor.  S. 
D. 
P. 

e-TVTT    -K}Vt              ~V]S)          ~fly 
-7]TOJf}    --fjTrjV, 

"flliev,      -77T6,     -r)cray. 

TU7T     -Wj                "^?y>              ~J7  > 

Perf.     S. 
D. 
P. 

T6-TU  -/J./J.CU,      -tyai,    -Trrat,10 
-uue^a,  -<b&€,   -u.fjLevoielo'l. 

10(5) 

re-TV-  piiivos  5,      ^s,      Ty,11 

-fJL/JL€V(a  ,        T^TOV,  i\TQV) 

-fjLfj.ej/01  8>/jL€V,  r^re,  5crt. 

Plup.    S. 
D. 
P. 

e-re-Tu  -wnv,    -tyo,      -TTTO, 
-HH&ov^fy&ov,  -<$>&iriv, 

10(5) 

P.P.F.  S. 
D. 
P. 

T€-TUI//  -0/j.ai,      -77,®        -erai, 
-6jJi€&a,  -eo-^e,  -ovrat. 

T6-TUI//- 

Wanting. 

§99. 


IN  THE   PASSIVE   VOICE. 


135 


TABLE  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE,  CONTINUED. 


OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1.          2.            3. 

-oifj.'nv,      -oio,8        -OITO, 

•Ot/UCiO'OP,  -OiUf^'OP,  "OlOwTyP, 
-Oiylte&CC,     -OIO"3'€,      -OIPTO. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2.        3. 

INF. 

Term. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
M.       F.        N. 

N.-^jUcj/os,    -77,     -OP, 

G.-O/ifPOU,     -77S,     -OU, 

-ofylTJP,        -OIO,8          -OITO, 

~oijU€<u'Op,  -oiowop,  ~oiff&fji/) 
-oiyuefra,    -oio"3e,     -oivro. 

Wanting. 

-- 

N.-^epoy,    -77,    -OP, 
G.-o/jievov,    -77?,  -ov, 
D.-OjUepcp,     -77,     -&j. 

-OtjUTJP,         -OIO,8           "OITO, 
-OLfJ.€&a,     -OIO"&€,      -OIPTO. 

Wanting. 

.,„»„ 

N.-o/^U6pos,    -77,     -OP, 

G.-0/16POU,      -7JS,      -Of, 

D.-o/xe'py,      -77,      -w. 

-eiTJV,           -6I77S,          -€177, 

-77TI,        -^TW, 

-««,,. 

N.-els,       -e?(ra,  -ep, 
G.-6PTOS,  -eia''rjs,-€VTOs 

D  -6PTI,       -€IO"77,    -€PTI 

W7/x    ,         77     ,         77 

-6I77P,            -6177S,         -6177, 
-eiTJTOP,    -6I77T77P, 

S'  IL 

-«~ 

N.-cis,       -6?(ra,  -ep, 

D.-6PTZ,       -6lV77,    -6PTI. 

-/i/iteVos  efyv,    eifTjs,     6^77  ,11- 
-fjLfjiei/oi  €3h]fi.ei')tfr]T€,  eiTjffav. 

•|r  1L 

i 

N.-/X/i€POS,    -77,       -OP, 

Gr.-ju/tepou,  -775,   -ov, 
D.-/iiU6pft>,    -77,     -§?• 

'01/J.TIlf,        -OIO,             -OITO, 

-oifj.€&ov,  -oiff&ov,  -oicrfrrjv, 
-o//*€^a,   -oicr^e,    -oimo. 

Wanting. 

•is 

N.-Oit6POS,     -77,      "OP, 

jr.-0/x.epou,    -77S,  -Ou, 
D.-o/*€pcy,     -77,     -QJ. 

X 


136 


CONTRACT  VERBS. 


§100. 


258.— §  100.  CONTRACT  VERBS.— Active. 


Present.                r//*- 

gd- 

dtjfc 

S. 

do) 

-0) 

r     x! 

-0) 

00) 

-0) 

deiq 

-aq 

iet,q 

-elq 

6tt,q 

-Olq 

det>    ->. 

-d 

Etl> 

-el 

oet, 

-ol 

D. 



J  









Ind. 

dtrov 

-drov 

itrov 

-elrov 

otrov 

-or>foi> 

dtrov 

-drov 

ierov 

-elrov 

otrov 

-ovrov 

P. 

do/u,ev 

-fiftev 

loftev 

-ovfjiev 

oojiiev 

-ov/ttv 

dtre 

-are 

itre 

-elre 

otre 

-ovre 

dovGt, 

-OJGI, 

tovGi> 

-OVGt, 

OOVGv 

-OVGl> 

S. 

do)  • 

-0) 

to) 

-0) 

OO) 

-0) 

dyq 

-aq 

£7]? 

"ffc 

oyq 

-olq 

OMJ 

-a 

£7] 

11 

04} 

-ol 

D. 

—  '.  

—  

—  

—  — 



Subj. 

dqrov 

-drov 

fyrov 

-yrov 

O^TOV 

-ortov 

dqrov 

-drov 

tyrov 

-rjrov 

oyrov 

-o>rov 

P. 

do)/itv 

-o)/jiev 

io)/u,tv 

-o)/Liev 

OWfltV 

-o)fiev 

dyre 

-are 

tyre 

-rire 

oyre 

-one 

do)Gl> 

-O)Gb 

io)Gv 

~0)Gl, 

00)Gi 

-0)Gt, 

S. 

dot>fAv 

-0)111, 

iotpo* 

-OlfM, 

O0l>/Al, 

-QtfJil 

doi>q 

-o>q 

£0t>q 

-olq 

ootq 

-olq 

dot, 

-0) 

ioi> 

-ol 

oot- 

-ol 

D. 



—  









Opt. 

doi>rov 

-o)rov 

iotrov 

-orrov 

oovrov 

-orroi> 

aolrijv 

-wryv 

eolrqv 

-olrqv 

ooirqv 

-olryv 

P. 

dowtv 

-wfiev 

iovpev 

-oljutv 

OO^llV 

-olf-iev 

dovre 

-o)re 

eotre 

-olre 

oot^re 

-olre 

doi^tv 

-0)tV 

iovtv 

-oltv 

OOlstV 

-oltv 

S. 

at 

-a, 

ee 

-tv 

oe 

-ov 

airo) 

-dro) 

tiro) 

-tiro) 

oiro) 

-ovro) 

Imp. 

D. 

dtrov 
airo)v 

-drov 

itrov 

-elrov 
-tiro)v 

otrov 
oiro)v 

-ovrov 
-ovro)v 

P. 

dtre 

-are 

itre 

-tire 

otre 

-ovre 

airo)Gav 

-dro)Gav 

tiroiGav 

-tlro)0~av 

oiro)Gav  -ovro)Gav 

Inf. 

atvv             -av 

ievv 

-tlv 

otw 

-ovv 

M. 

ao)v 

-0)V 

io)V 

-0)V 

00)V 

-0)V 

Part. 

F. 

dovGa 

-o)Ga 

iovGa 

-ovGa 

oovaa 

-ovGa 

N. 

dov 

-wv 

iov 

-ovv 

oov 

-ovv 

Imperf.              Itip- 

Icpd- 

£v- 

S. 

aov 

-0)V 

tov 

•ovv 

oov 

-ovv 

atq 

-aq 

eeq 

-ei,q 

oeq 

-OVq 

ae 

-a 

ee 

-ei> 

oe 

-ov 

D. 













Ind. 

derov 

-drov 

ierov 

-elrov 

OfTOV 

"ovrov 

airqv 

-dryv 

eiryv 

-eirr\v 

oiryv 

-ovrqv 

P. 

dopev 

-0)fiSV 

iofJLev 

-ovpev 

6o/u,ev 

-ov/tev 

de'te 

-are 

iere 

-elre 

oers 

-ovre 

aov 

-0)V 

(OV 

-ovv 

oov 

-ovv 

§100.  CONTRACT  VERBS.  137 

CONTRACT  VERBS.— Middle  and  Passive. 


ofiai> 


ao/ut&oy 

dtG&ov 

dtG&ov 


-MIAOU, 


-ciff&ov 
-CLG&OV 


iopai, 

*n 

itrat, 

(Oflf&OV 

ita&ov 
ifff&ov 


iovrav 


-ovpai, 


OO/iOtt 


-OVflt&OV 

"*  -tlff&ov 


-tlff&e 
-vvvrai, 


-OV/.IOU, 


-OVTCU> 

OO/Llf&OV  -QVflt&QV 

OtG&OV  -OVG&OV 

OfG&OV  -OVG&OV 

-ov/u-t&ct, 


-dff&ov 
-dff&ov 
-tbftt&a 
-ciff&t 

-WVTCU 


1 
-T/r 

-0)ftt&OV 


irjG&ov 
to)  pi  &a, 


O7|  -0? 

ojyrctt'  -wren- 

OWHt&OV  -d)fif&OV 

6t]G&OV  -MG&OV 


-w/ut&ct, 


aoiiiyv 

dotTo 
aoipi&ov 

aoiG&tjv 


-MO 
-WTO 


to  to 
eotro 


-otTo 

-oifit&ov 

-OIG&OV 


ooto 

ootro 

ooiftf&ov 

OOiG&OV 


-oiftrjv 
-oto 
-oTro 
-oiftt&ov 

-OIG&OV 


-wvto 


lotff&e 
iowro 


-oiG&f 
-olvro 


ooifit&a 

OOiG&f 

60  WTO 


-oi/uf&ct, 

-OIG&£ 

-olvro 


ctia&wv 
dtff&t 


-o) 

-dff&o) 
-aa&ov 
-dff&ow 


-dff&o)ffav 


£OV 

teff&o) 

itG&OV 
tiG&MV 

itff&t 


-OV 

-tiff&o) 

-tlG&OV 


oov 

OEff&O) 
OtG&QV 
OtG&MV 
OtG&f 


-ov 

-OVG&O) 

-OVG&OV 

-OVG&OW 

-Ol'ff&f 

-OVG&MGOLV 


ao/ulvrj 


-OVG&OU, 


touivov 


-oirpevoi; 

-ovfjiivrj 

-ov/Atvov 


oo/uvt] 
ootitvov 


-ov/tiv-tj 
-ovptvov 


trip- 


idrfi- 


dov 

dtTO 

aotif&ov 

dtff&ov 

aea&fjv 

ao.ae&a 

dta&t 

doVTO 


-ciff&ov 
-da  fry  v 
-wjut&a 


iov 
itro 


-ov 
-tiro 


-llff&OV 


iovto 


OOll 

OfTO 

OOjilf&OV 

OfG&OV 

O£GOf]V 

OOjUl&Gt 

6fG&£ 

OOVtO 


-OV 

-OVTO 

-OVflf&OV 

-OVG&OV 

-OVff&t]V 

-OVjLll&Ct 

-OVG&t 

-OVVTO 


138  OBSERVATIONS  ON  §  101. 


§101.  OBSERVATIONS  OJST  THE  THREE  VOICES. 

259. — The  following  observations  are  designed  to  point  out 
more  particularly,  certain  changes  in  the  terminations  of  these 
parts  which  frequently  occur,  and  which,  without  explanation, 
might  perplex  and  retard  'the  student  in  his  progress.  Further 
information  respecting  these  and  other  changes  will  be  found  in 
the  table  of  dialects  which  follows.  See  274. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 
260. — OPTATIVE. 

1.  In  the  optative  mood,  instead  of  the  usual  terminations  -oi[u, 
-oig,  -of,  &c.  the  Attic  dialect  has  the  following  : 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

-oi'rjv,  -ofyg,  -o«y ;         -ofyrov,  -oiJjWjv;       -oti^er,  -ofyre,  -oiqcav, 

This  form  is  also  used  by  Ionic  and  Doric  writers. 
In  the  optative  of  the  1  aor.  active,  instead  of  the  common 
termination  -cupi,  -cug,  -at,  &c.  the  ^Eolic  has  as  follows : 

Singular.    -  Dual.  Plural. 

-eia,  -stag,  -eis ;  -etarov,  -sidrqv ;         -eiapsr,  -eiars,  ~si,av. 

The  Attics,  as  well  as  the  lonians  and  Dorians,  use  this  form 
in  the  2d  and  3d  persons  singular,  and  in  the  3d  person  plural. 

261 . — IMPERATIVE. 

2.  In  the  3d  person  plural  of  the  imperative,  in  Attic  writers, 
the  termination  ovroov  is  more  common  than  KTcoaav ;  thus,  in 
the  present,  tvTtrovvmv  for"  rvrtreraGav.     For  other  varieties,  see 
Table  of  Dialects,  274,     This  form  is  also  met  with  in  Doric 
writers. 

262. — INFINITIVE. 

3.  The  infinitive,  in  the  ancient  dialects,  ended  in  sfisvcu.     It 
was  changed,  in  the  Ionic,  into  epev ;  and  afterwards,  the  p  being 
rejected,  was  contracted  by  the  Attics  into  eiv. 

263. IMPERFECT    AND    AORISTS. 

4.  The  JEolians  and  Dorians  use  a  peculiar  form  of  the  im- 
perfect, and  first  and  second  aorists,  which  is  made  by  adding  the 
syllable  xoi>,  to  the  usual  form  of  the  2d  person  singular,  and  then 
inflecting  them  like  the  imperfect ;  thus,  instead  of  STVTTT-OV,  -eg, 


101.  THE   THREE   VOICES.  139 


-£,  &c.  ;  it  makes  Izt^rrarx-or,  -££,  -£,  &c.  ;  in  the  1  aor. 
ov,  -fitf,  -£,  &e.,  and  in  the  2d  aor.  trvneax-ov,  -eg,  -£,  &c.  Hence 
the  same  tenses  in  the  middle  voice,  and  the  imperfect,  in  the 
passive,  make  erwrr«yx-o/i^y,  -oi>,  -gro,  3d  plural  o*>ro. 

Obs.  1.  But  before  the  endings  -y.ov,  -x€^>  -xfi,  <fcc.  in  con- 
tracted verbs,  diphthongs  reject  the  subjunctive  vowel,  and  in 
verbs  in  p,  the  long  vowels  are  changed  into  their  own  short  ones  ; 
as,  2  sing.  &r0te&,  inoieaxov  ;  eV/#jy£,  $ti&£Gxov9  &c. 

065.  2.  This  form  is  used  only  in  the  indicative  mood;  it  usu- 
ally rejects  the  augment,  and  is  scarcely  to  be  found,  except  in 
the  singular  number  and  3d  person  plural.  It  is  used  only  to  ex- 
press repeated  action. 

264.  -  FUTURE,  ACTIVE  AND  MIDDLE. 

The  Future  in  the  dialects  has  the  following  varieties  . 

(1.)  The  Attics  often  reject  <r  from  dcco,  VCFCO,  IGCO,  ocrco,  con- 
tracting the  remaining  vowels  when  that  can  be  done  ;  as,  skdaco, 
I  will  drive,  reject  #,  I  A«oo,  contracted  I  Aeo  ;  so  skaGSig,  l^dsi^ 
contracted  ii«f,  <fec.  In  like  manner  we  have  xtfAaj  for  xaMaw, 
I  will  call  ;  OIXTIW  for  otxr/dw,  /  will  pity  ;  and  in  the  middle 
voice,  oiiov^iai  for  q^o<ro/*ca. 

(2.)  Attic  Futures  in  /.ca  are  inflected  like  contract  verbs  in 
soo  (251,  or  258),  thus,  -/-co,  -i£ig,  ~&t\  -IMTOV,  <fec. 

(3.)  2,  is  sometimes  elided  from  the  future  active  and  middle 
of  pure  verbs,  especially  among  the  poets,  even  when  croo  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  ;  as,  present  ^/oo,  future  %EV- 

6G),  Or  ££VOO. 

(4.)  For  (Too,  the  Doric  termination  is  £00  ;    as,  y^ajco  for 


(5.)  Verbs  in  po),  vco,  have  the  future  Ionic  in  /co  uncontract- 
ed  (see  273-1);  as,  ^f^/co  for  VE\JL^  ;  pevt'co  for  /*£j>ea.  » 

(6.)  Verbs  in  (>oo,  in  Homer,  commonly  insert  <r  ;  as,  OQG& 
for  o(>co,  /  will  excite;'  sometimes  also  verbs  in  AGO  ;  as,  fAcrco 
from  flea  ;  xtAaco  from  xt'Hco. 

(7.)  The  Attic  and  Ionic  termination,  particularly  of  liquid 
verbs,  is  often  ?/(jco  ;  as,  ^a7Jkt]ao)  for  £>cdca,  /  will  cast;  XC 
for  %aQa,  I  will  rejoice. 

In  inutes,  TVTtTJjGoa  is  used  for  rvipoo,  I  will  strike. 

265.  -  PERFECT    INDICATIVE. 

5.  a.  Some  verbs  suffer  a  syncope  in  the  perfect;  thus, 
xata'w  I  call          xocA//crco  xfxt^xa 

In  like  manner  ded/pyxa 


140  OBSERVATIONS   ON  §101. 

b.  Some  perfects  in  qua,  from  verbs  in  dco,  strike  out  v,  before 
a,  and  (except  in  the  participles)  change  q  into  a ;  thus, 

from  flaw        .  fiefiqxa  fizfiaa 

from  rkdco  t&fapia  rsrkaa,  &c. 

c.  Of  the  vowels  thus  brought  together,  the  latter  is  sometimes 
rejected;  as, 

fiefifaaiJiEv  fisfidapev  by  syncope  fi^a^ey 

rerfa'jXEvai  rerkdevai  by  syncope  rerkavai 

In  other  verbs,  the  Attics  sometimes  change  s  into  o  ;  thus, 
rQSTTco  I  turn  tQe\f>(Q  rsrQOfpa 

d.  A  similar  change  has  taken  place  in  the  Ionic-Doric 
hoy%a,  from  (A^/co),  Ace^oo  (Aay/ca'w),  analogous  to  A/^o 
3.a{j,j3dvco.     Thus  also  7T87to6%8  is  found  for  7i87taG%e. 

266. PERFECT    SUBJUNCTIVE,    &C. 

6.  The  subjunctive  and  optative  of  the  perfect  are  sometimes 
made  by  a  periphrasis  of  the  perfect  participle  and  the  verb  el^jd9 
I  am  ;  thus,  subjunctive  tetvcpag  co,  yg,  y ;  tervcpore  yrov,  &c.; 
optative  rsrvcpwg  sfyv,  eiy$9  eiy.     And  sometimes  the  indicative ; 
as,  rervcpag  Kcopcu,  I  shall  have  struck. 

267. PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

7.  The  participles  sometimes  change  ?/  into  a,  and  sometimes 
not. 

In  either  case,  by  a  syncope  of  the  former  vowel,  ?/oo£  and  awg 
are  changed  into  cog,  which  remains  also  in  the  neuter ;  and  the 
feminine,  which  otherwise  ends  in  via,  becomes  cacra,  and,  in  the 
oblique  cases  of  the  masculine  and  neuter,  co  is  retained ;  thus, 

Uncontracted.  Contracted. 

fisfia-cog     -via  -6g     fiefi-cog      -COGO,    -cog    G.    -corog 

vs&vtj-ojg   -via  -6g     re&v-cog   -owra    -co£  -corog 

eery-cog      -via  -6g  ) 

or,  >•  ear-cog      -COG a   -c&g          -corog 

sGraxcog       eGra-cog     -via  -6g ) 

a.  The  Ionics  and  Attics  insert  s  before  co£ ;  thus,  sGr-ecog, 
-ecoGa,  -scog,  G.  -ecorog.     But  in  the  poets,  the  ordinary  termina- 
tions frequently  remain  after  the  contraction;  as,  8Gre-c6g,  -via, 
-6g,  G.  sGre-orog,  &c. 

b.  The  perfects  in  which  these  changes  most  frequently  occur 
are  T&tyxa,  te&Wfxa,  ^^xa,  BGrqwx, ;  and  in  these  the  regular 


§  101.  THE  THREE  VOICES.  141 

form  is  more  common  in  the  singular,  and  the  contracted  form, 
in  the  dual  and  plural. 

MIDDLE   AND   PASSIVE. 

268.  -  2D  PERSON    SINGULAR. 

8.  The  2d  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative  originally 
ended  in  EGCU.     In  the  Ionic  dialect,  the  d  being  rejected,  it  be- 
came eat,  by  diaeresis  eai,  and  was  afterwards  contracted  into  y 
(116,  R.  III.)  ;  sometimes  by  the  Attics  into  ei  ;  and  in  the  same 
manner,  in  other  moods  and  tenses.     In  the-  subjunctive  qaai  be-, 
came  you-,  and  then  y.    In  the  imperative,  the  indicative  imperfect, 
and  2  Aorist,  eao  became  €0,  contracted  ov  ;  and  in  the  1  aorist 
middle  aero  became  «o,  contracted  co.     In  like  manner,  in  the  2d 
person  singular  of  the  optativet  owo  became  oio,  and,  being  inca- 
pable of  further  change  by  contraction,  remains  in  this  form. 

269.  -  IMPERATIVE,  3D  PERSON  PLURAL. 

9.  In  the  3d  person  plural  of  the  imperative,  the  Ionic,  Doric, 
and  especially  the  Attic  writers,  use  the  termination  av  instead 
of  cocav  ;  thus,  xvniwdwv  for  TVTtTSG&coGav.     See  Table  of  Dia- 
lects, 274. 

270.  -  PERFECT    AND    PLUPERFECT    PASSIVE. 

10.  The  terminations  of  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  passive, 
cannot  be  correctly  represented  in  any  paradigm  of  a  mute  verb, 
because  the  termination,  combining  with  the  final  mute  of  the 
root,  undergoes  various  changes,  according  to  the   laws  of  eu- 
phony (§  6),  which  causes  an  apparent,  but  not  a  real  variety  in 
the  terminations  of  these  -tenses.     For  the  terminations  alone,  see 
231. 

(1.)  The  terminations  preceded  by  a  ^-mute,  as  in  the  para- 
digm, according  to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  combination  of 
consonants,  combine  with  it  as  there  exhibited  ;  viz. 

S.  reroppo*,  45-9  tetvtyai,  44-6     rtrvnrai 

D.TervpiiE&ov  "  T&vqj&ov  T&vcp&ov,  43-2,  47—  17 

P.  TSTViS&a      "  TSTVC&8  1VIV  LJiivQl  €tW 


(2.)  Preceded  by  a  x-mute,  they  combine  as  follows  : 

S.  l&syiiai  W*e£ai,  44-7      JU'fexra*,  43-2 

D.l&e'we&ov  Ule^ov  Uteyftov,  43-2,47-17 

P.  fafa'ype&a  tytegfre  Wwypsvoi  slat 

(3.)  A  r-mute   before  a  consonant  in  the  passive  voice,  is 


142  OBSERVATIONS  «o:ff  §  101. 

changed  into  <r,  and  combines  with  the  terminations  of  the  per- 
fect Mild  pluperfect  without  change,  except  where  the  termination 
begins  with  cr,  in  which  case  the  r-mute  before  it  is  rejected 
(47,  17.  Obs.  9)  ;  thusj  nei&w  for  example  in  the  perfect  indica- 
tive passive  is  inflected  as  follows  : 

S.  TteTzeiGpai,  46-11  nsrteiacu,  44-8  asTzeiGrcu 

D.  ftEaeiG(jie&oi>  nimiGftw  •  TtenEiG-O'ov,  44-8 

P.  neTTUGpe&a  rtzneia&s  ttMtstttpevot  tic  I 

(4.)  Liquid  verbs  whose  characteristic  is  A  or  Q,  in  the  perfect 
passive,  add  the  terminations  to  the  root  without  change,  except 
that  those  beginning  with  o&,  drop  the  a  (47-17).     Those  whose 
characteristic  is  \i  insert  77  before  the   terminations  (§-97,  3,  Exc.). 
Of  those  whose  characteristic  is  v  dissyllables  in  «Voo,  /^oo,  vrca 
reject  v  (244-4),  and  then  annex  the  terminations  without  change. 
But  when  <v  is  retained  it  is  changed  sometimes  into  p  —  more 
•  commonly  into  G  before  the  terminations  beginning  with  p,  and 
is  rejected  before  those  beginning  with  G&.     Before  the  other  ter- 
minations it  remains  unchanged  ;  thus,  cpaivco  in  the  perfect  indi- 
cative passive  is  inflected  as  follows  : 
S.  TTecpafiftou,  or       Ttscpaa^ai          nsyavacu      nsyavrai 
D.  necpdpps&ov         iteapaGfAe&ov      Tistyaa&or     Ttecpacftor 
P.  7ieq)d(A,[A,ed'a,         aecpaGiis&a       neyaG&s       Tte^a^voi  daf, 


Note.  Before  the  terminations   beginning  with  G&,  v  sometimes  re- 
mains, and  (7  is  rejected;  as,  niyav&ov  TtEqiav&t  &c.  for  fl&pwrOw,  ni- 


(5.)  In  all  mute  and  liquid  verbs,  except  some  dissyllables  in 
o,  tW,  vvco  (244-4),  as  the  terminations  vxai  in  the  third  per- 
son plural  of  the  perfect,  and  vro  of  the  pluperfect,  cannot  coa- 
lesce with  the  root,  the  circumlocution  of  the  perfect  participle 
with  slat  and  qaav,  are  substituted  ;  thus,  rswfifjiwoi  (at)  slai  for 
i&ivnvzai  ;  ffly&n&voi  (ai)  elal,  for  JffysLvrat.  —  But  in  pure  verbs, 
this  circumlocution  is  unnecessary,  as  the  terminations  vrai  and 
vro  readily  unite  with  the  characteristic  vowel  of  the  root  preced- 
ing ;  as,  reri^vrai.,  from  npdcQ  ;  liretyfiiqyto  from  tydeco.  To 
these  are  to  be  added  those  liquid  verbs  which  drop  v  before  the 
terminations  of  the  perfect  ;  as,  rsrarrai  from  isivw  ; 
from  X£w>c0,  &c.  (244-4). 


271.  -  SUBJUNCTIVE    AND    OPTATIVE    OF    PERFECT    PASSIVE. 

11.  The  subjunctive  and  optative  being  distinguished  from  the 
indicative  only  by  the  mood-vowels,  and  there  being  no  mood- 
vowels  in  the  termination  of  the  perfect  passive,  it  is  necessary, 


§  101.  THE  THKEE  VOICES.  143 

for  the  sake  of  distinction,  to  adopt  the  circumlocution  of  the 
perfect  participle  with  the.  subjunctive  and  optative  of  sipl,  as  in 
the  table  of  terminations  231,  or  in  the  paradigm"  of  the  verb  257. 

But  if  the  termination  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  passive  is 
preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  circumlocution  in  the  subjunctive  and 
optative  moods,  as  exhibited  in  the  paradigm,  becomes  unneces- 
sary ;  and  these  moods  are  formed  as  in  observations  3  and  4, 
following. 

Obs.  3.  In  the  Subjunctive,  the  vowel  preceding  the  termina- 
tion is  dropped,  and  the  terminations  of  the  present  subjunctive 
annexed;  thus,  perfect  fragpub^utt,  subjunctive  TTecp&witai,  -^, 
-tjTcu,  &c.  ;  perfect  kJX^ipor;  subjunctive  xfx^-atytca,  -77,  -r^rai. 

Exc.  But  verbs  in  oca,  frequently  retain  o>,  as  a  mood-vowel, 
through  all  the  numbers  and  persons  ;  as,  deduct  pai,  -cp,  -eurca, 
&c. 

Obs.  4.  The  Optative  adds  the  terminations  p^v,  o  (viz.  from 
(To),  TO,  to  the  characteristic  of  the  tense,  with  t,  interposed  after  a, 
and  subscribed  with  q  or  00  ;  thus, 


XSXQI-TO,  <c. 

h&V-TO,  &G. 
eX7(U-0  8XTCU-TO,  &C. 

necp&ri-o  necp&ri-To,  <fec. 

dedfacp-o  dsdfacp-ro,  &c. 

In  a  few  instances,  the  subjunctive  w^ai  is  made  tafijjv  in  the 
optative,  and  the  co  retained  throughout  ;  thus,  pdftrqfuu  has  the 
subjunctive  ptyUHDpai,  and  the  optative 

&o. 


Note.  Both  in  the  subjunctive  and  optative,  however,  these  forms 
are  but  seldom  used,  the  circumlocution  being  generally  preferred. 

2Y2.  -  IONIC    AND    DORIC    FORMS. 

12.  In  the  Ionic  and  Doric  dialects,  v  before  -rou,  and  -to,  in 
terminations  of  these  tenses  in  the  3d  person  plural,  is  changed 
into  a,  so  that  vrai  becomes  arcu  ;  and  vro,  aro  ;  thus, 
becomes  keUatcu  ;  XeitttrOj  hekvaro,  &c. 

Obs.  5.  A  flr-mute  or  a  x-mute  before  atai  and  aroy.  for 
and  vro,  is  changed  into  its  own  aspirate  ;  as,  rsrvcp-arai, 
O.TGU,  for  TSTVTt-vrai,  kMf-rtcu,  &c. 

Obs.  6.  As  the  circumlocution  TeTvppzvoi  el$i  is  used  to  avoid 
the  cacophony  of  the  regular  termination,  rsrvcprrai,  (10.  (5) 
above),  this  being  removed  by  the  change  of  v  into  «,  the  circum- 
locution in  the  indicative,  of  all  such  verbs,  becomes  unnecessary. 


144  DIALECTS  OF  VERBS  IN   co  AND  [U.  §102. 

Thus,  rmrpfi&<x  aV,  is  changed  into  zezvcpazcu ;  fofoypwoi  elci, 
into  fa),t%avou,  <fec. 

Ofo.  7.  If  (7  (changed  from  a  r-mute,  235,  E.  2,)  precedes  the 
termination,  it  is  changed  into  d  or  #  before  area  and  aro ;  thus, 
ffxaxxfco,  perfect  passive  laxevaGpai ;  3d  -person  plural  Ionic 
SGxevddazai ;  jrL/i^co,  perfect  passive  nsatyaiAai,  3d  person  plu- 
ral rtSTi'kij&azai  for  n^n^r\(5 \iivoi  eiGi. 

Obs.  8.  In  pure  verbs,  77  or  et  before  JL«M  is  usually  changed 
into  e  before  the  Ionic  azai  and  azo ;  thus,  7iecpi).-qvz(u  and  -2/rro 
are  usually  changed  into  aecpd-e'azcu  and  -eazo.  In  like  manner, 
a  before  azcu  and  ctro  is  changed  into  c,  to  avoid  the  duplication 
of  the  a  ;  thus,  avanszavzai,  from  dvaaezdco,  becomes  avaTteze- 
azai. 

Obs.  9.  In  like  manner,  v  before  the  termination  zo,  seldom 
before  zai,  in  the  indicative  and  optative  of  the  other  tenses,  but 
never  in  the  subjunctive,  is  changed  into  a ;  thus,  for  ZVTIZOIVZO 
we  have  zv7zzoiazo  ;  for  yivoivzo,  yevoiazo,  &c.  So  also  in  verbs 
in  fu ;  as,  n&earcu  for  zi&eproa ;  iazeazcu  for  lazavzcu.  In  these 
forms,  a  and  o  before  y  are  usually  changed  into  e ;  as,  Iflovkeazo 
for  Ifiovhovzo,  &c. 


273.— §102.  DIALECTS  OF  VERBS  IN  co  and  p. 

1.  A  principal  difficulty  in  learning  Greek,  arises  from  the  va- 
riety of  terminations  in  verbs,  according  to  the  different  dialects. 
These  can  hardly  be  reduced  to  any  general  principles ;  but  a 
pretty  clear  idea  of  them  may  be  formed  from  the  following  table. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  many  of  the  same  terminations 
occur  in  all  the  dialects,  although  that  one  only  is  mentioned  in 
which  they  are  most  usual.     Besides  the  final  syllables,  of  which 
this  table  chiefly  consists,  the  lonians  used  to  insert  a  vowel  be- 
fore the  last  syllable,  which  the  poets  often  changed  into  a  diph- 
thong; as,  Subj.  2  aor.  active  or  passive  ZVTTW,  I.  zvnsco,  P.  zv- 
TteiG).     So  cpvy-ew,  I.  yvy-mv ;  fio-wtii,  I.  @o-6coGi ;  OQ-ag,  I.  OQ- 
dag.     But  as  this  does  not  affect  the  inflection  of  the  final  sylla- 
ble, it  is  not  noticed  in  the  table.     §  98,  Obs.  4. 

2.  These  moods  and  tenses  of  the  middle  and  the  passive 
voice,  which  agree  in  termination  with  the  active,  and  are  not 
here  specified,  are  subject  to  similar  changes,  in  the  different  dia- 
lecjs,  with  those  having  the  same  terminations  in  the  active  voice. 
The  same  is  true  respecting  the  terminations  of  verbs  in  fit ;  so 


§  102.  DIALECTS   OF   VERBS   IN   co   AND    pi.  145 

• 

that  this  table  is  general,  applying  to  the  terminations  here  spe- 
cified, whether  they  belong  to  verbs  in  oo  or  pi.  The  dual  is 
omitted  in  the  table,  as  it  but  seldom  occurs.  For  other  changes 
by  dialect,  see  §  101  throughout. 

A  Table  exhibiting  the  most  usual  Dialects  of  the  terminations 
of  Greek  Verbs. 

274.— I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

FINITE   MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1  Pers.  -qfjitj  J&.  -Sfifu ;  D.  -&.[u  and  (if  from  dco)  -apt ; 

as,  rffr-efJlfU  for  -r^t ;  icr-api  for  IGT-THU. 
-siv,  I.  -£«,  D.  A.  -Y\ ;  as,  exq^in^  for  -eiv. 

-otfu,  A.  -oiqv,  D.  -cpqv ;  as,  cpd-oiqv  for  -oTpi. 

-cw^a,  A.  -tyrp ;  as,  vtu-tytp  for  -o5^. 

-04//1',  A.  -cp^y ;  as,  did-(pr{V  for  did-ofyv  ;  and  so 

on  through  all  the  persons. 

2  Pers.  -£t$,  D.  -££,  JE.  -?/<? ;  as,  dpety-eg  for  -f^. 

-<*£>  -^?j  A.  -acji^«,  -rfi&a;  as,  Iqp-^ttfa  for  -37^;  oS- 

aada,  contr.  ofei^a,  for  o?dag. 
-aig,  ^E.  A.  -£/«^  ;  as,  rwf^&ag  for  -oa^ 

-«^,  A.  D.  -7j?  ;  as,  yoiT-TJs  for  -«^. 

3  Pers.  -«    |  ^m'        D*  "£'  -^  "^  ?  as'  f ^nrf~n  for  ~a' 

'    (plup.       A.  -37,  I.  -t'£  ;  as,  IreTvcp-r]  for  -£e. 

-42.  A.  -«£ ;  as,  ivip-sit-  for  -at. 
I.  -T/di ;  as,  xvnr-r^i  for  -77. 
D.  -?/,  -77;  as,  6(>-y  for  -«. 
-df,  D.  -rt ;  as,  Tidy-ii  for  -crt. 

PLURAL. 

1  Pers.  -[lev,  D.  -^£? ;  as,  rv7iro-p.es  for  -jit£3> ;  rvip-ov- 

[ieg  or  -8Vfisg  for  -ofe«> ;   cpd-svpeg  for 
-ovpxv  ;  drfl.-ovpsg  for  -oi'fiev. 
-riHW,  A.  -/*«> ;  as,  rvcp&ei-fiEv  for  rvq 

2  Pers.  -7/zf,  A.  -rfi  ;  as,  riKpftu-rs  for  rv<p&ei-i]re. 

3  Pers.  -a/,,  D.  -ra ;    as,   (pdip-avri  for  -#<jt ;   s%-wvri 

for  -cooi ;  A/y-o^rr  for  \ty-ovci ;  rfAewrt 
for  -overt;  qpeJUottof  for  -oi/crt;  n-fr-erri 
or  -^z«  for  -£«3Y, ;  dtd-owti  for  -o 

7 


146  DIALECTS   OF  VERBS  IN   co  AND  fit.  §  102. 

3  Pers.  -Gi,  B.  into  v  ;  as,  isrvy-av  for  -act. 

-o<7f,  -vat,  -eiGi,  I.  -Earn,   -vast,   -saai  ;   as,  dstw-vaGi  for 

-£>0i  ;  iift-saGi  for  -£f<j«. 
-ovtfi,  I.  -evert  ;  -oaGi,  D.  -orcr*  ;  as,  did-oaGi.  for 

-overt  ;  cpifo'-oiGi  for  -ovo7. 
-oy,  B.  -ocray  ;  as,  lG%d£~oGav  for  -oy. 

OGUV)  -cacrar,  P.  -£f,  -a^,  -oy,  -coy  ;  as,  ti&- 
w  for  -£Gav  ;  ^-o^  for  -o<yai'  ;   fy 
for  -cocra^. 

A.  I.  -SGCW  ;  as,  slbt'jCp-fGav  for  -^crcw. 
/,  -ccxam,  ^E.  A.  -aGi  ;  as,  re&v-aGi  for  -/yx 
-^E.  A.  -eiav  ;  as,  rvip-eiav  for 


1.  2.  3.  3.  3. 

-ercoGar,  -ekcoGav,  -OT&GUV,  -ovi&Gav,  A. 
into 

1.         2.  3. 

-dvtow,  -ovrwv,   -ovvrwv;  as, 

for    -arcocyay  ;    l.ey-6viwv    for 

for  -ei 


-aoy,  contr.  -coy,     )  T\  T     ~  >          ~   * 

/  ~       >•  D.  I.  -«vy  :  as,  iiycx,7i-e,vv  for  -coy. 

-soy,  contr.  -ow,    j  '  " 

INFINITIVE. 

-«y,  -eyat,         I.  -£[tev,  A.  D.  -//Uwai,  -evy,  ^E.  -«y,  -^y ; 

as,  IkO'-efiwai  for  -f /,y ;  a/i^y-£y  for  -£iy ; 

r('d'-8f4ev  and  -^tgyat  for  -fyat. 
-at,  A.  D.  -e'fievai ;  as,  ivyj-spevat  for  -at. 

-ay,  A.  D.  -dpevcu,  -fa,  M.  -qv,  -qg,  ~aig ;  as, 

£gy  for  f«y.     (§  98.   Oos.  2.) 
-ovy,  A.  D.  -OjUfyae,  E.  -zvv9  -coy,  JE.  -o&,  -oty ; 

as,  (Sty-coy  for  -ow. 

PARTICIPLES. 

-ovcra,  D.  -or^a,  -8VGa  ;  as,  £at-evGa  for  f^r-c 

•ag,  -aGa,  -ay,  D.  -a«^,  -awa,  -aty ;  as,  ghp-aig  for 


-co£,  )  -vra,  -6^,  A.  -coV,  -cocra,  -co^ ;    as,  sGt-cog  for 
-ax-co?,  )  -?7xco£,  §  101.  7.  I.  -£co?. 

-w$,  ^E.  -coy  ;  as,  rervqp-coy,  G.  -ovrog,  for  -(Off, 

-orb?. 


§  103.  SECOND   CONJUGATION.  14:7 

II.  MIDDLE  AND  PASSIVE. 

FINITE   MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1  Pers.  -opai,  f.  D.  -otyuxi;  as,  vvifj-ovpai  for  -Ojteat. 

-ovftai,  D.  -evfiai  ;  as,  (Utfr-evpcu  for  -ovfiai. 

-pqv,  D.  -pav  ;  as,  IrvTiio-fiav  for  -fitp. 

2  Pers.  -77,  A.  -t/,  I.  indie,  -ecu,  subj.  -«yat  ;  as,  fiovh-ei 

for  -77,  &c. 

-ov,  L  -so,  D.  -€i;  ;  as,  fid^-ev  for  -ov. 

-<o,  I.  -ao  ;  as,  lkv<j-ao  for  -co. 

PLURAL. 

1  Pers.  -£i9cc,  D.  -£##«;  as,  iy.6[i-eG&a  for  -€#«. 

3  Pers.  -yzai,  -fVot  £wn',  1.  -ara*  or  -s'aTcu  ;  as,  y.sarai.  for  xewrai  ; 

tigv-arcu  for  -rrat  ;  tatagr-arat  for  -y^s- 

yoieW,  (§10L  12.) 
-vro,  -evoi  jjdav,  I.  -aro  or   -mzo  ;    as,  nev&ot-aro   for 

-owro;    tyw-earo  for  -O^TO;  eV 

for  -fitvoi  IIGUV,  (§  101.  12.) 
-rfiav,  -^E.  -£y  ;  as,  dwrfitl-sv  for-^da? 

for  -qaav. 
-coaav,  A.  I.  D.  -coy;  as,  lu^aab-m*  for  -wear. 

INFINITIVE. 

D.  -rjftevai,  -^E.  -^/^y  ;  as,  fai(p&-?jfiev  for 


PARTICIPLES. 

-ovpevog,          D.  JE.  -evfievog  ;   as,  cpik-evp8rog  for  -ov- 


§103.  SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

-75. — Verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  end  in 
r^tw,  and  are  formed  from  pure  verbs  of  the  first, 
as  follows :  x 

1.  w  is  changed  into  ^  and  the  short  vowel 


148  SECOND   CONJUGATION.  §  103. 

before  it  is  changed  into  its  own  long,  or  tlie 
doubtful  vowel  lengthened  ;  thus, 

From  cr^t  oo  is  formed  GpTjiu          I  extinguish 
yvoco  yvwfu          I  know 

cpdoo  qjijfii  I  say 

I  hear 


2.  Regular  verbs  in  aca,  £6?,  oco,  reduplicate  the 
initial  consonant  with  i  in  the  present  and  imper- 
fect; thus, 

From  fc'oo  is  formed  fa'-dtjfii  I  bind 

ih'co  rl-ftqiu  I  place 

flow  dtd&fu  I  (jive 

But     Tita'co  makes  ni\nnki]iiii  I  fill,  47-19 

3.  Verbs   beginning   with  a   vowel,    prefix   ^ 
which  is  called  the  improper  reduplication  •  thus, 

From  i  co  is  formed  t-tiui         I  go 

ff  9  -r  1 

too  i-u         I  send 


Obs.  1  .  Also  verbs  beginning  with  GT  or  nt  prefix  i  with  ''the 
aspirate  ;  thus, 

From  craw  is  formed 


4.  The  reduplication  is  not  used  in  verbs  in 
nor  in  those  whose   radical   primitive  has  more 
than  two  syllables;  thus, 

From  yJ.va  comes  xl.vfu  I  hear 

/Woo  /«7//^«  /  know 

ovtco  or  i]  fit,  I  assert 

Likewise  some  other  verbs  ;  as, 

cpdco  fjp?/p  I  say,  <fec.  (No.  1.) 

Obs.  2.  Some  verbs  which  begin  with  a  vowel  repeat  the  first 
syllable,  after  the  manner  of  the  Attic  reduplication  (224-6)  ; 
thus,  ii).q[u  and  «P.A//p  ;  (i/^fu  and  dxd%r]fu. 

Obs.  3.  Some  pure  verbs  add  vvv  to  the  root  before  jwr,  and 
mute  and  liquid  verbs  add  rv  in  order  to  pass  into  fii  ;  as, 

R.  o'Xfc'fltt 


O.Q  JUP-NT-MI, 


§  104,  105.  THE  TERMINATION.  149 

5.  Verbs  in  pi  have  only  three  tenses  of  that 
form  ;  viz.  the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  and  the  2 
Aorist.  The  other  tenses  are  taken  from  the 
primitive  in  co,  and  are  of  the  first  conjugation, 
296.  Verbs  in  vpi  want  the  second  aorist,  and 
also  the  subjunctive  and  optative.  When  those 
moods  are  needed,  they  are  borrowed  from  forms 
of  the  first  conjugation  in  vco. 

Obs.  4.  Several  verbs  form  only  the  2d  aorist  according  to  this 
conjugation,  216,  Obs.  1;  in  such  cases,  verbs  in  va  have  the 
2d  aorist  in  w  ;  as, 

fiawco         from    fidco  Root  @a  2d  aor. 

yiyvoKjy.co  yvoo*  yvo 

dvco  dv 


Obs.  5.  Many  verbs  of  this  conjugation  are  deponent,  having 
only  the  passive  form,  while  their  signification  is  active  ;  such  are 
t,  I  can  ;  xstpcu,  I  lie  ;  dt£rj[iai,  I  seek  ;  ot'ofiai,  I  think. 


276.— §104.  THE  ROOT  AND  AUGMENT. 

1.  The  Root  of  verbs  in  \ii  has  but  one  form,  and  is  the  same 
with  the  first  root  of  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived ;  thus, 
iGTtjfU  from  crraco,  R.  crza ;  Tt&qpt  from  i9^co,  R.  t>£,  &c. 

2.  In  Verbs  that  reduplicate  (275-2),  the  reduplication  is  pre- 
fixed to  the  root  in  the  present  and  imperfect  only. 

3.  The  imperfect  and  2d  aorist  are  augmented  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation. 


277.— §  105.  THE  TERMINATION,  OR  FINAL  LETTERS. 

1.  In  the  first  conjugation,  the  terminations  consist  of  two 
parts,  the  mood-vowels,  and  final  letters,  225-2.  In  the  second, 
the  mood-vowels  are  wanting,  and  their  place  supplied  by  the 
last  letter  of  the  root,  which  sufficiently  distinguishes  the  moods 
by  the  changes  which  it  undergoes  in  combining  with  the*  final 
letters. 


150 


FORMATION   OF   MOODS   AND   TENSES. 


§106. 


2.  The  Final  letters  in  all  verbs  belonging  to  this  conjugation, 
are  the  same.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  Primary  and 
Secondary.  The  primary  belong  to  the  present  indicative  only  ; 
the  secondary  to  the  indicative  of  the  imperfect  and  2  aorist,  and 
to  the  optative  in  all  the  tenses.  They  are  joined  immediately 
to  the  root,  and,  so  far  as  they  can  be  separated  from  it,  are  as 
follows : 

278. — I.   ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Secondary  Tenses. 

-g  


Primary  Tenses. 
Sing,  -pi          -$          -6i 

-V 

Plur.  -pep        -re        -VTGI 

-per 

-re 


-rqv 
-Gar 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 


Imperative. 


-rov 
-re 


-TO) 

-rcnv 
-rcoaav 


Infinitive. 
-vai 

Participles. 
N.  -vrg  -vraa  -v    G.  -vrog,  &c. 


279. — II.    MIDDLE   AND   PASSIVE   VOICES. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


Primary  Tenses. 
Sing,  -pea        -ecu       -vai 
Dual,  -pe&ov    -G&OV    -G&OV 
Plur.  -ue&a     -G&E      -vrcu 


-fM]V 


Secondary  Tenses. 

-60  -TO 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 


Imperative. 
-      -cro 


-efts 


Infinitive. 
-Gftai 
Participles. 


§  106.  FORMATION  OF  MOODS  AND  TENSES  IN  THE 
ACTIVE  VOICE. 

280. — In  the  present  and  imperfect,  through 
all  .the  moods,  prefix  the  reduplication,  in  verbs 
that  reduplicate,  and  then — 


§  106.         FORMATION  OF   MOODS  AND  TENSES.  151 

1.  For  the  Indicative. 

281. — RULE.  Change  the  short  vowel  of  the  root 
into  its  own  long  (237)  in  the  singular  of  the 
present  and  imperfect,  and  in  all  the  numbers  of 
the  2  aorist,  and  then  add  the  final  letters,  277-2 ; 
thus, 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT.  2D  AORIST. 

S.  icrq-fu     -g 


-g      — 
—     -rov  -rqv 
-re    -GO.V 


-g 
-rov 


-re    -Gay 


D.  utra—     -rov  -rov 
P.  iGra-iiev  -re     -GI 

Exc.  1.  In  the  2  aorist,  rt&qfu,  did&m,  and  iqpu,  have  the  long 
vowel  in  the  singular  only. 

2.  For  the  Subjunctive. 

282. — RULE.  Change  the  final  vowel  of  the 
root  into  the  subjunctive  terminations,  d>,  fje,  fj, 
<fec.,  229  j  thus, 


,   R.  ara-  Subj.  Pres.   tcyr-oS,   -fig,  -J;    -tjrov,   -?jror,  &c. 
2TAor.    crr-oa,     -fig,  -fi;    -IJTOV,   -JJTOV,  &c. 

06s.  These  terminations,  in  the  subjunctive,  combine  with  the  reg- 
ular subjunctive  terminations  (229)  the  final  vowel  of  the  root,  forming 
a  sort  of  mixed  vowel  or  diphthong,  and  consequently  they  always 
have  the  circumflex  accent,  as  here. 

Exc.  2.  But  verbs  in  cofu  retain  w  through  all  the  persons  and 
numbers;  as, 


from  doca,  R.  do,  Subj.  Pres.  8td-oj,  -cpg,  -$  ;   -<ntov,  &c. 
2  Aor.     £-c5,  -cpg,  -<p  ;  -&TOV,  &c. 

3.  For  the  Optative. 

283.  —  RULE.  Change  tjie  final  vowel  of  the 
root  into  its  own  diphthong,  and  add  the  second- 
ary final  letters  with  r\  prefixed  ;  thus, 

Pres.     ujrai-^v  -t]g  -r},  &c.      n&ei-qv  -qg  -ij,  cfec. 
2  Aor.  arat-qv    -qg  -y,  &c. 


152  FORMATION   OF   MOODS  AND  TENSES.         §  107. 

4.  For  tlie  Imperative. 

284.  —  KULE.  In  the  present  tense,  add  the  final 
letters  to  the  root  ;  but  in  the  2  aorist,  change  the 
short  vowel  into  its  own  long  ;  thus, 

Pfesent,       lara-fti,    -TOO,    -ror,    -rcov,    -TE,    -roiGav. 
2  Aorist,      cry  -oh,    -TOO,    -TOP,  <fec. 

Exc.  3.  In  the  2  aorist,  Tt&rjpt,  dldwfu,  and  iqp,  retain  the 
short  vowel,  and  add  g  instead  of  &i  in  the  2d  person  singular  ;  as, 
&i-$9  -reo  ;  -rov,  -TOW,  &c.  ;  86-g,  -TCO  ;  -rov,  -?cov,  &c.  So  also 
onijiu,  (pQitfU,  and  <T#^M>  in  the  present,  have  Gnig,  (pytg,  G%t£- 

5.  For  the  Infinitive. 

285.  —  RULE.  In  the  present  tense,  add  the  final 
letters  to  the  root,  and  in  the  2  aorist,  change  the 
short  vowel  into  its  own  long  ;  thus, 

Present,  ictd-vai,  2  aor. 


Exc.  4.  In  the  2  aorist,  vfOyfu  and  'i^i  change  the  short 
vowel  of  the  root  into  si,  and  didcopi  changes  it  into  ov  ;  as, 


6.  For  the  Participles. 

286.  —  RULE.  Add  the  final  letters  to  the  root, 

and  then  combine  by  the  rules  of  euphony,  §  6, 
18  ;  thus, 

iard-vrg,         -vrca,  -v,  combined  iGT-dg,         -ana,  -av. 

iifti-vrg,         -vraa,  -v,                   iift-dg,        -uoa,     .  -f-v. 

dido-vrg,          -vr$a,  -v,                   did-ovc,        -ovca,  -or. 

dewvv-vrg,      -wca,  -v,                   dzixv-vg,      -vaa,  -vv. 


§  107.  FORMATION  OF  MOODS  AND  TENSES  IN  THE 
MIDDLE  AND  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


.  —  Prefix  the  reduplication  in  the  present 
and  imperfect  in  verbs  that  reduplicate  (275-2),  as 
in  the  active  voice  ;  and  then,  in  all  the  tenses,  —  • 


§107.         FORMATION  OF   MOODS  AND  TENSES.  153 

1.  For  the  Indicative,  Imperative,  Infinitive,  and 
Participles. 

288.—  RULE.  Annex  the  final  letters  (279)  to 
the  root  ;  as, 

Indicative,   lara-pai,  -Gat,  -rat,  &c.    Imp.  tGrd-prfv,  -co,  -ro,  &c. 

Imperative,  iGrd-Go,  -G&co,  -G&OV,  -<y#o)y,  <fec. 

Infinitive,     iGra-G&ai. 

Participles,  iGrd  (twos,  -pevq,  -psvov. 

2.  For  the  Subjunctive. 

289.  —  RULE.  Change  the  last  letter  of  the  root 
into  the  subjunctive  terminations,  cj^cay  r\y  rjTcu, 
&c.,  230,  and  282,  Ola.  ;  as, 

R.  Gra-  Subj.  Pres.  iGr-muat,     -fj,     -rtzcu,  &c. 

2  Aor. 


JKrc.  Verbs  in  a>[ii  retain  co  through  all  the  numbers  and  per- 
sons, as  in  the  active  voice,  282,  Exc.  2  ;  as, 


,  R.  do-  Subj.  Pres.  dtd-dt^ai,     -qj,     -oorea,  &c. 

2  Aor.  d-oapai,     -^5,     -cora/,  &c. 


3.  jR>r  ^  Optative. 

290.  —  RULE.  Change  the  last  letter  of  the  root 
into  its  own  diphthong,  and  add  the  secondary- 
final  letters  ;  as, 

i  R.  (Tree-  Opt.  Pres.  iffTcu-ptp,     -GO,     -ro,  &c. 

2  Aor.         arai-fjujv,     -GO,     -ro,  &c. 


065.  2  is  usually  rejected  in  the  2d  person  singular  ;  mak 
ing— 

-o,    -ro,  &c.  '       Grai-pqv,    -o,    -ro,  &c.,  295-8. 


291.  —  N.  B.  As  the  root  of  verbs  in  p.  ends  in  a,  ?,  o,  or  v, 
these  vowels,  combining  with  the  final  letters,  cause  the  appear- 
ance. Q$  four  different  forms  of  termination,  and  for  thjs  reason 
four  paradigms  have  usually  been  given,  though  there  is  in  fact 
only  one.  The  following  tables  will  show,  that,  in  whatever  vowel 
the  root  ends,  still  there  is  but  one  form  of  inflection. 

7* 


154 


PARADIGM   OF  VERBS   IN   tu. 


108. 


Singular. 


108.  PARADIGM  OF  VERBS  IN  ML* 
292. — ACTIVE    VOICE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

Indicative  Mood,  281. 
Dual. 


Siov     f' 

detxvv  ) 

<      \ 

IGT   I 

«#j     'W     "0ff     '% 
did         -CO      -Q)£     -Q) 


Terra 


(drat 
didoi 

IGTCC  -th3     ^ 
rA^£   -Tt4f    ( 

:'i 


v -ro^  -roy 
Seixvv  j 

Subjunctive,  282. 
-^roy    -rpov 

-6J70V    -&TOV 

Optative,  283. 


Plural. 


-re 


Imperative,  284. 


-TQV       -TWV 


-tiper  -tire  -codt 


"qpev*  -tjTe  -q$av 


-re   -rcocray5 


Infinitive,  285. 


.      Participles,  286. 

IGT-&Q         -aca  -dv 

n&-ei$        -eTca  -ev 

dtd-ovg        -ova  a  -6v 

g       -vaa  -vv 


IG-T7] 


IMPERFECT    TENSE,  294-6  (2). 

Indicative,  281. 


• -TOP   -r^v 


«'&&o 


-aav7 


The  other  moods  in  the  imperfect  are  wanting. 

^ote.  The  numbers  1,  2,  3,  <fec.,  refer  to  the  same  numbers  in  §  109 


.    *  For  the  accents,  see  254-2. 


f  43,  06s.  5. 


§108. 


PARADIGM  OF  VERBS  IN 


155 


PARADIGM  OF  VERBS  IN  ML 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 
SECOND    AORIST. 

Indicative  Mood,  281. 
Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 


-g     — 


at } 

#  j-    -w  -us  -y 

8         -co    ~cp$  -(p 


arat, 


s&e    >  -TOV 


Subjunctive,  282. 
-rpov     -rjrov 

-G)TOV      -&TOV 

Optative,  283. 

-TftOV 


Imperative,  284. 


86    -$ 


-TCO 


-re 


.-cars    -cocrt 


-year 


Infinitive,  285. 


Participles,  286. 


&£l    V  -VCU 

dov  \ 


8ovg 


crdv 

&lv 

8ov 


Note  1.   The  numbers  1,  2.  3,  <fec.,  refer  to  the  same  numbers  in 
§109. 

Note  2.  For  the  accents  in  these  tables,  as  in  the  tables  of  the  first 
conjugation,  see  254-2. 


156 


PARADIGM   OF  VERBS  IN 


.108. 


PARADIGM  OF  VERBS  IN  ML 

293.  —  MIDDLE   VOICE. 

PRESENT    TEXSE. 

Indicative  Mood,  288. 
Singular.  Dual. 


Plural. 


i  GT  a 


-  -pcu  -ecu  -rai 


dswvv 


-G&OV  -G&OV 


IGT  )    - 

n&  \  ' 

did     -copai  -cp  -arai 


Subjunctive,  289. 

-CO[A,8&01>  -IjG&OV,  &G. 

-cope&ov  -o5(ji>o^,  &c. 
Optative,  290. 


ujrcu 


didot 


-o  (do8)  -ro  I  -iied-ov  -G&OV 


-tjGe  -wrzai 

-tt  -CG<Ji>£  -GWTCU 


-vvo 


Imperative,  288. 


UJTO,       1 

lf%s    Uo- 

0100        i 

dewvv  } 

Infinitive,  288. 


Participles,  288. 


dido 
tisutw 


•  -G&CU 


ar 


devxvv 

IMPERFECT    TENSE. 

Indicative,  288. 


IGTCK, 
fV/i>s 
Idido 


-(.t  eft  a  -G&S  -VTO 


The  other  moods  of  the  imperfect  are 'wan  ting. 

Note.  The  numbers  8,  9,  refer  to  the  same  numbers  in  §  109. 


§108. 


PARADIGM   OF  VERBS  IN 


157 


PARADIGM  OF  VERBS  IN  ML 
MIDDLE  VOICE. 
SECOND    AORIST.- 

Indicative  Mood,  288. 
Singular.          ^  Dual.  Plural. 

-G&OV  -G&riv    -jM€#a  -G&S  -vro 


IQTCt,  I 

l&S     f  -[MJV    -GO    -TO 

tdo    ) 

I  -waai  -rj  -rrtai 

\T    \ 

d      -wpai  -dp  -aizai 


Subjunctive,  289. 
,  &c. 


-cope&ov  -catr^or,  &c. 


GTCU  } 

$81      V  -pip  -0  (GO8)  -TO 

dot  \ 


Optative,  290. 

1  -G&OV  -G&qv 


GTU 


-OTO9       -G&G) 


Imperative,  288. 

-G&OV  -G&COV 


a  -7JG&8  -GOVTCU 


-G&S  - 


Infinitive,  288. 

Gzd 

&s 

do 


Participles,  288. 


Gra 


The  PRESENT  and  IMPERFECT  PASSIVE  are  like  the  PRESENT 

and    IMPERFECT    MIDDLE.      The  SECOND  AORIST   PASSIVE   IS 


Note.  For  the.  other  tenses  of  verbs  in  pi,,  see  §§  110,  1U,  an<i  for 
the  dialects,  §  102. 


158  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VERBS  IN  pi.  §109. 

§  109.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VERBS  IN  pi. 
294. — ACTIVE   VOICE. 

1.  The  final  letters  of  the  3d  person  plural  are  properly  VIGI  ; 
and  these,  combining  with  the  preceding  vowel  according  to  the 
rules  of  euphony  (47-18),  become  am,  eiGi,  OVGI,  VGI,  mm. 

2.  In  the  optative,  77  is  often  dropped  before  the  final  letters 
of  the  plural,  making — 

-aipzv,  -cure,  -aii-v  ;     -eipev,  -sirs,  -sizv  ;     -oipev,  -owe,  -oisv ; 
instead  of — 

-afypev,  -aiqre,  -ai^Gav  ;     -efypw,  &c. 

3.  iGTqpi  has  sometimes  iGry  for  iGra&i  in  the  imperative ; 
and  in  compounds,  GTCC  is  commonly  used  for  Giq&i ;  thus,  ava,- 
GTO,  for  aya0*ff&i ;  TtaQaGra  for  TtaQaGtrfii,  &c. 

4.  So  also  ri&j^jn,  didwfu,  and  iqiu,  have  sometimes  tl&ei, 
dldov,  isi,  for  Ti&eti,  dido&i,  i£&i  \.  but  these  are  properly  con- 
tracted forms  of  the  primitive  verb*  with  the  reduplication,  used 
in  the  Ionic  and  Doric  dialects ;  thus,  r*#/o>,  imperative  rlftee, 
contracted  rf&si. 

5.  As  in  verbs  in  oo  (261),  so  also  in  those  in  pi,  wrcw  is  used 
for  M&Gav  in  the  imperative  3d  person  plural. 

6.  The  primitive  in  co,  with  the  reduplication,  is  sometimes 
used  instead  of  the  form  in  gu  in  the  present  and  imperfect ;  thus, 

(1.)  Present. 

n&em,     -leig,  -m,  contr.  -ca,  -eig,  -eT,  for  ti&ijfUf     -tig,  ^GI,  &c. 
iGrdco,    -dsie,  -dsi,     "      -co,  -ag,  -a,  &    iGtiftu,     -qg,  ~qGi,  &c. 

through  all  the  inoods. 

(2.)  Imperfect. 
eti&eov,-  -eeg,  -ee,  contr.  -ovv,  -eig,  -si,  for  In&qv,   -yg,  -q,  &c. 

7.  The  terminations  -aGav,  -BG&V,  &c.,  in  the  3d  person  plu- 
r-al,  are  frequently  shortened  by  syncope  ;  as,  IGTOLV  for  iGtaGav  ; 
en&w  for  Iti&EGav  ;  I fiav  for  efiqaav. 

295.— :MIDDLE  AND   PASSIVE. 

8.  In  the  2d  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  indicative,  mid- 
dle, and  passive,  <r  is  often  rejected,  and  the  concurring  vowels 
contracted  ;  thus,  IGTOO  for  lataao  ;  it&ov  for  TI&SGO,  &c.     So  in 
the  present  indicative,  sometimes  wry  for  iGTaGcu.    Also  in  the 


§  110.      TENSES  FORMED   FROM  THE   PRIMITIVE.  159 

» 

2d  person  singular  of  the  optative,  cr  is  rejected,  but  the  vowels, 
being  incapable  of  contraction,  remain  unchanged. 

9.  The  same  contraction  takes  place  in  the  imperative ;  but 
in  the  2d  aorist  &SGO  is  contracted  into  &ov  only  in  compounds ; 
as, 


§  110.  TENSES  FORMED  FROM  THE  PRIMITIVE. 

296. — Verbs  in  gu  have  only  three  tenses  of  that  form;  viz. 
the  present,  imperfect,  and  2d  aorist.  All  the  other  tenses  are 
formed  from  the  first  root  of  the  primitive,  as  in  the  first  conjuga- 
tion (232-2),  and  are  inflected  as  the  same  tenses  in  verbs  in  w ; 
as, 

from  i9*a),    has  fut.  ih/crea,  •frfjGopai,  &c. 
,  from  doco,     has  fut.  dcoGca,  dcoGOpaij  &c. 
from  ffraea,  has  fut.  (m/creo,  1  aor.  arr^cra,  &c. 

291. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  Future.  Some  verbs  occasionally  retain  the  reduplication  ; 
as,  didcoGw  from  didwfu ;  and  verbs  from  derivatives  in  vvco  and 
vvvw  form  the  future  from  their  primitives ;  thus,  dei^vv^i  from 
flax^o),  has  the  future  dsi^co  from  tfaxco. . 

2.  first  Aorist.  T&rjui,  8id<*)(M,  and  Syfa,  have  xa  and  v-a^v 
instead  of  <ja  and  (SUpy*  in  the  1st  aorist  indicative ;  as,  1  aor. 
&tyxH)  f&iptopip ;  f5cox«,  tdcaxdfiqv,  &G.      In  these  verbs,  the 
other  moods  of  this  tense  are  wanting. 

3.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Active.     Verbs  in  fit,  from  eco  com- 
monly have  si  before  xa  of  the  perfect ;  those  from  «oo  have  ^  or 
a ;  as,  fivb/ai  from  thco,  perf.  rt^atxa ;  tarqiu  from  (Traco,  perf. 
&r//x«,  or  IWaxoc.     In  these  tenses,  ujTtjiu  aspirates  the  augment, 
and,  except  in  the  singular  of  the  indicative,  has  a  syncopated 
form  which  resembles  the  present ;  thus,  first  person  plural  fiW//- 
xttytfi',  by  syncope,  earaper,  &c.  infinitive  sGTtjxwai,  by  syncope 
jbrroftti ;  participle,  as  267. 

06s.  The  perfect  active  of  iGirnti  has  a  "present  signification ; 
thus,  am/x«,  /  stod,  pluperfect  earfjxew,  I  stood.  In  the  pre- 
sent, imperfect,  future,  1  aorist,  active,  it  signifies  to  place,  to 
cause  to  stand.  In  the  passive  throughout,  to  be  placed.  The  2 
aorist  middle  is  not  in  use. 

4.  Passive  voice.     The  short  vowel  of  the  root  remains  short 
before  a  consonant  in  the  passive  voice;  as,  didaiu,  future  passive 


160        IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.      §J.ii.  112. 


i,  1  aorist  ido-ftyv,  perfect  d&o-fJtaii  &c.  But  ei  before 
xa  in  the  perfect  active  returns  before  pat  in  the  perfect  passive  ; 
as,  perfect  active  it'&si-xa,  future  passive  ifr&fjGOficu  (43-4),  per- 
fect passive  reOu-pai. 

5.  Tenses  wanting*  Verbs  in  fu  want  the  second  and  third 
roots,  and  consequently  the  tenses  derived  from  them  ;  viz.  the 
second  future  passive,  the  2d  perfect  and  2d  pluperfect  active, 
and  the  2d  aorist  passive. 


298.— §111.  TABLE  EXHIBITING  ALL  THE  TENSES  OF 
VERBS  IN  ML 


ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


PASSIVE. 


Present. 

tGVjjat 

Ira  perf. 

ff 

IGTtiV 

Fut. 

GT/jGCO 

1  Aor. 

SGTfjGa 

2  Aor. 

.  SGTIjV 

Perf. 

iGTaxa 

or  -ma 

Pluperf. 

SGrdxew  or  daz 

Fut.  perf. 

tertctfirp 


scrapqv 


sazaptjv 


299. —  Verbs  in  MI  to  be  conjugated. 


dldiftu 


ov?j[Jii 


i  loo       I  send 

niiunk^ 

>  CT^HJO   I  extinguish 

olAviii 

£61700,  1  join 

nxqfu 

dt'a      I  bind 

(^TUJLI 

Tzrdco  I  fly 

yJkv\jii 

6v8G)    I  help 

QCOVVVfr 

6/i6oo  I  swear 

,  from  ^^'oo    I  Jill 

hence  TT)JJ&<X) 
oAfc'co    /  destroy 
rnxdca,  I  conquer 
cpdw    I  say 
MG)    I  hear 
£000     Istrengthen 


§112.  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS  IN  ML 

300. — The  irregular  and  defective  verbs  -in  pi.  are  usually 
reckoned  nine;  viz.  sljut  I  am ;  tlpi  and  </////,  I go  ;  Ir^u,  I  send ; 
Mfuu,  I  clothe  myself  ;  wa«,  I  did  set ;  qpat,  I  sit;  xeipcu,  I  lie 
down;  tyr^i,  I  say ;  and  olda,  I  know.  The  parts  in  use  are  as 
follows : 


§112. 


S>     / 
.  fkfil 

D. 
P. 


s.  o5 

D. 

P.  wpev 

S.  efyv 

D. 

P. 


IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  161 

301.— I.  Eijui,  lam. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

Indicative. 

fife  Or  El  8G71 

IGTOV  IGIOV 


\ 

1\TQV 
03(7* 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Imperative. 

Sa  a 

.    £(70  t(7rCO 

D.  kGTQV  SGICOV 

P.  fGTS  EGTCOGUV 


Infinitive. 
ewcu 

Participles. 

'      M.    03V 

F.    ovGa 

F.   ov 

IMPERFECT   TENSE. 

Indicative. 

\  or 


S.   ij-n-v 

r>.  ^/uih)v 


Iiidic. 


MIDDLE   VOICE. 
IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 
I;GO 


rpftrp 


;  Opt. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 

.  Inf.  SGSG&CU,  Part. 


,  regular. 


162  IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.          §  112. 


302.— THE  CHIEF  DIALECTS  OF  dpi 
ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT. 


1. 
Sing,  ft/a,  D.  I ft  ft  I, 

Plur.  iffuiv,  tiuis, 


Sing.  w,  I.  £w,  P. 

Plur.  Jj//fv,  D.  <#i« 
P. 


Sing   U7p,  I.  cfo*/u. 
Plur.  tfyptv,  I,  flfjttv. 


Sing 
Plur. 


5  T 

twai>f  1. 
M.  Zv,  L  I 


ft/ifv,  D. 


Sing,  qv,  L    I'a,  rta,   P.  £^r, 

fiqv,      TJfjV,      £OV,     TjOV, 

Du. 

Plur.  ww,  D.  ^«5,  P.  e>fr. 


Indicative. 
2. 
ft^,  or  ft,  I.  &KJ,  P. « t, 

effffL 
laxi,  P.  e'r^. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 

ffyTf,  L  €?«.          . 

Imperative. 

!'<ro,  P.  fWo,  A.  Iff^t. 


Infinitive. 
fjftiVf  IK^S)  tit*****)  -& 

Participle. 
Fern.  oiVot,  I.  love  a,  D. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

//TOV,     ^E.     £0T01>,      P. 

fa,°lta™.V' 


3. 


sari,  T>.  ivri,  ivi 

dql,  D.  ivti,  M.  wit,, 
fvvrt',  P.  ta(fi>,  Zaffffi*. 


7],  I.  £7],  f  M],  ^(7t,  «//(Tt, 

P.  *fy<Tt. 
(OflT^,  L   CWO't'. 


tj,  I.  eot. 
'^ffar,  I.  A.  «wv. 


aV,    A. 

P.  ed 


£ft/u,tvat,,  P. 


Neut.  ov,  L  Joy,  J2. 
tv. 


> or  ^r> 

P.  €(TXf 


nyv,  A.   %<"*!*>  ?• 
aav,  P.  £0"ay,  £(7<rav, 

£<TXOV. 


§112.          IRREGULAR   AISTO   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  163 


MIDDLE   VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 


Indicative. 

Plur  |  ifViOj  I.  care,  *ia. 

FUTURE. 


Indicative. 
Sing.  zGOftat,,     D.     l<ro/V/cciy  «<r»],  A.  eot,  I. 


tv/itai,,  P.  tffffOjuat,. 


»     . 
sfffficu,  D.  fffflj,  £0"- 


fffrai,,          syncope 
carat,  JD,    iff tlr at,, 


Plur.  tff6ntOa,JE.tff6ftfa9a.il(Ttaftt.  £GovTat,D.  IGOU 

Infin.  tata&ai',  P.  eGGtffdcu.     Particip.  tGo/ttvoc;,  P.  foro/iM-ocr. 

303. — II.  JE//^,  /  ^. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Dual.  Plural. 

Indie,  eifu    elgorel  f?<7«  frov     i'rov        msv  ITS 

Subj.    foo      trig          ty  I^TOV  tyrov       icofiw  ir^rs 

Opt.     foi-fu  i'oig         i'oi  toiTov  w&Cip      i'oipw  \\nre 

Imper. i&i          irco  "rov     fzooy ire 

Infin.    tivvii      Part  icov  lovaa  lov,GQU.i6vrog  lovcyg,  &c. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

Sing,  rjf.iv  or  f^a  mig  or  g&o&it  rjsi 

Dual.  rjtiTov  or  rpov  foiTyv  or 

Plur.   risiuev  or  T^sy  ^t/rf  or  fjrs  Tjfray,  Ion 


MIDDLE  VOICE.— -h/tcu,  to  hasten. 

Indicative. 

Present,     T-f^ttt  -£cr«t  -gzat  -SUB&OV,  &c. 

Imperf.      i-/^^  -mo  -fro  -t'us&ov,  &c. 

0&5.  1.  The  Attics,  and  sometimes  the  lonians,  use  the  present 
of  ??[u,  in  the  indicative,  infinitive,  and  participles,  in  a  future 
sense,  "  /  will  f/o" 

Obs.  2.  The  ancient  grammarians  have  another  form  of  the 
imperfect;  viz.  t?r,  £?tf,  t?— Piw,  Ir-qv — i^w,  Trf,  /ray; — and  of 
the  second  aorist,  few,  fe,  if,  &c. ;  but,  except  the  third  persons 
ft,  irjyy,  and  fray,  peculiar  to  epic  writers,  no  such  forms  are 
found. 


164  IRREGULAR  AND  DEI^ECTIVE  VERBS.          §  112. 

304.—  III.  "Inui,  to  send,  from  "EH. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Indie.    ui\u     trig     ir\Gi         isrov  TETOV      is  per    fere  iaai,  or 


Subj.     «cjL      l-fig     //]  UITOV  upov      Iwpw  lyre 

Opt.       /^fr    iwqg,  &c. 

Imper.  —  *—  Jit(tWH)  it'Twierov  i&cov     --    MS 


Infin.     llvai      Participles,  isig     hlaa  lev     Gen.  Unog,  &c. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie,     isov    ieeg    IES  )  »          <,         »          »        » 


Contr.  low 

FUTURE. 

Indie.  ?/(T-co    -sig    -ei    -STOV,  &c. 

1  AORIST. 

Indie,  /yx-a    -ag    -s    -arov,  &c. 

2  AORIST. 
TV         ^.          ^i            r 

0    i  .          r  r0 

Subj.     &)        ^g        ^,  &c. 

Opt.      ur\v     eujg     eiq  tirov     eirqv     e'fftev     errs    e'n-v 

Imper. tg        era)         srov      star tie 

Infin.     £vai    Participles,  eig  els  a  w     Gen.  wrog,  &c. 
PERF.  tTx-a     -«^,  &c.         PLUPERF.  eix-sw     -eig,  &c; 

MIDDLE   VOICE. 

PRESENT. 
^.    Jf^^t      f£(7a/      ISTCU      ifUffr^,  &C. 


Subj.    i&pcu  l(i         iTjrai   tibjief^w,  &c. 

Opt.  ioifiqVfi&c.  Imper.  tccro  or  i'ov.  Infin.  leaOcu.  Part,  itfupog,  &o. 

Indicative. 
IMPERF.  /V^t^  tWo,  &c.     FUT.  ?y(TO|UCM,  <fec.     1  AOR.  r^afirff,  &o. 

2  AORIST. 

Indie.   BJUJ^  f/'(To  f/ro     eifted'df  eia&ov  elo^v  oqie&a,  <fec. 
Subj.     cS^at  ?}        ?/r«/,,  &c. 

Opt.      offty/y  o/o     ofro,  &c.       rarely  ifp/r  iTo,  <fec. 
Imper. ov      fo^ea,  &c.     Infin.  ?fffr&i.  Part,  epsvog  -^   -oy 

PERF.         Indie.  fm«t  i/'dftf,  &c.     Infin. 
PLUPERF.  Indie, 


§112.          IRREGULAR   AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  165 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 
FUTURE.  Indie.  8#y/ero/io£         1  AOR.  Indie,  ei&ip'.      Part,  i 


305.  —  IV.  Elfiai,  I  clothe  myself. 

This  verb  comes  from  fco,  to  go  into,  to  be  sent,  or,  put  into.  — 
Middle,  to  put  one's  self  into,  to  clothe  one's  self  ;  and  it  is  the 
same  in  the  present  middle,  and  present  and  perfect  passive  ;  thus, 

PRES.  MID.,  AND  PRES.  AND  PERF.  PASS. 

Iiidic.  S.  ei-pai,  -Gat,  -rat  and  -Gzai.  —  3d  PL  eivtui.  Part,  sipevog. 

FIRST    AORIST. 

Indie,  SIG  (  fiVff,  IMG)  -dprjv,  -co,  -aroy  &c.     Part,  eGGdfisrog. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Indie.  £f/4J?y,  eiao  and  ?GGO,  eiio,  &GIO,  MGZO,  and  wro.  3d  PI.  ewzo. 

306.  —  V.  EltJoc,  did  set,  did  place. 

FiGa  (from  &»,  to  put),  a  defective  trans,  verb,  to  lay  a  foun- 
dation ;  to  erect  (a  building),  has  the  following  forms,  viz.  : 
ACT.  1  aor.  sha9  &c.     MID.  eiGaftqi?',  &c. 

The  diphthong  el  is  properly  the  augmented  root  f,  which, 
h  -svever,  is  retained  in  all  the  moods.  The  future  &GOpkt  is  sel- 
dom used.  The  defective  parts  are  supplied  from 


307.—  VI.  'fffiat,  I  sit. 

TfffAca  is  properly  a  perf.  passive,  with  a  present  intrans.  signi- 
fication. from  the  same  Iw,  to  put,  to  place,  or  to  set  ;  thus,  Pcrf. 
/  have  been  placed  or  set,  and  remain  so  ;  i.e./  sit.  It  wants  the 
subjunctive  and  optative  except  in  the  compound  xaih/jU«f,  which 
has  x&Qvofiai,  xa&offMjv,  &c.  and  is  more  common  than 


PRESENT. 

In  lie.  q-fjicti  -GCU  -rat  l-pe&ov  -G&OV  -G&OV  l-pe&a  -G&S  -vrai 
Tmper.  J  —    -cro   -<ji>a)]  --    -c&ov  -Gfrcovl  —       -G&S 
Inf.       r^ftou  Part,    r^vog-ri     -ov 

IMPERFECT. 

Iiidic.   VW*   "(7°   "T0    [•^U^'OJ?  -aftov  -afir^y  \-[isda  -afts  -vvo 

Obs.  3.  Foi1  ijVTat,  the  Innians  use  tar  at,  and  the  Poets  itarai  ; 
and  for  ?/yro  in  like  manner  i'aro  and  u'aro.  So  also  for  xdftqrrai 
and  xd&qvro  the  Ionic  forms  are  xare'arai  and  xartaro,  272. 


166 


IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


§112. 


)  I  lie  down. 


308.  —  VII. 

This  verb  may  be  regularly  derived  from  xeeco,  for  f  co  by  pros- 
thesis of  XE  ;  xft'oo  becomes  xfyfu  in  the  2  conjugation,  and  in  the 
middle,  xesfjuu,  by  contraction,  xsr/ittt.  It  has  the  Ionic  forms, 
xearcu  and  txs'aro  for  xeirvai  and  Ix&vzo,  272. 


Singular, 

Indie,  xei-fjuu    -GUI 
Imp.  %Ei —     -o-o 

Inf.       'MlGftctl 

Part.  X8i[*8vog  -i\ 


PRESENT. 

Dual. 


-G&OV  -G&CDV 


-GO  -TO 


IMPERFECT. 
-G&OV 


Plural. 

"8  -VTOLl 

-G&e  -G&COGCIV 


-G&S  -vto 


FUTURE. 

-T/  -£T««,  &c.  regular. 

309.—  VIII. 

except  gjifc,  in  the  2d  person  singular  of  the  present  in- 
dicative active,  is  like  KtttjfU.  It  appears  to  have  had  an  ancient 
form  /}p,  whence,  probably,  we  have  the  forms  of  the  imperfect, 
rjVj  ^£,  //,  frequently  used  in  familiar  language  with  ft  fyoi  and 
d'  &;  as,  fy  8'  «yo>,  "said  I;"  %  &  off,  "said  he."  The  infini- 
tive tpdvai  is  always  used  in  the  sense  of  the  past  time  ;  as,  cpdvcu 
tor  jLcoxQtivq,  "  that  Socrates  has  said."  When  the  present  in- 
finitive is  required,  it  is  supplied  by  Ifyew. 

310.—  IX.  OtSa,  ITonow. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Dual. 


Plural. 


Ind.   olda 

olG&a; 

fe  0?$8  (v) 

IGTQV  "GTOV 

ft                    M 

lG[A81>   IGTS 

IGCCGI 

Subj.  ei  dot 

Eidrig 

€t'5jj,  &C. 

Opt.    8id8lT]V 

eidefyg 

eidsit],  &c. 

Imp.  

i'G&i 

IGTCO 

'(GtOV   IGTCOV 

IGTE 

iGTCOGaV 

Inf.    BI&&CU 

Part,  f.ldcog  -via  -6g 

*  Q&*s,  with  the  paragogic  &ot,  oitictff&a,  by  syncope  ola&a.    Old 
Attic  form 


§113.  DEPONENT  VERBS.  167 

IMPERFECT. 

Sing.  %dew  #&/£  (g&fffdo,  Att.  qdrjG&a)  fidei,  Ait.  yd 

Dual.  - 


Plur.  j  $****2  °r  [  flfc»«  (or  gore) 


FUTURE  eUfftyuu,  more  rarely  sid/jGco,  I  shall  know,  experience. 

Verbal  adj.  neuter  iatfof. 

The  aorists  and  perfect  are  supplied  from  y/poSaxw. 

Obs.  4.  O?#«  is  strictly  a  2d  perfect  from  eidco,  I  see  ;  perfect 
/  have  seen,  or  perceived,  i.  e.  /  know.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  as 
a  present  only,  and  its  pluperfect  as  an  imperfect,  as  above.  For 
ffffiev9  the  lonians  have  idfisv  ;  and  for  sldevai,  the  Epic  writers 
have  i'dpevcu,  and  tdfiev. 

Matthias  and  the  older  grammarians  derive  the  above  forms,  begin- 
ning with  t,,  by  syncope  from  an  assumed  verb  lo^/u,  of  which  i*  the 
Doric  dialect  the  forms  icapt,  foijs,  foar*,  and  the  part.  Jlja?,  are  ex- 
tant. On  the  other  hand,  Buttmann,  Kiihner,  and  others,  think  these 
forms  all  belong  to  6*da,  or  t  ftftu  —  that  foi*tv,  according  to  the  ordinary 
method  of  derivation,  is  formed  from  the  Ionic  id/itv  (§6,  11),  which 
manifestly  belongs  to  iido),  and  not  to  iff-ijfu>;  while  latov,  tart,  are,  by 
a  similar  analogy,  from  i^ror,  0Tf,  from  the  same,  by  dropping  the 
mood-vowel;  and  that  the  imperative  termination,  #*,  is  substituted 
for  the  ordinary  termination,  as  is  usually  done  when  the  mood-vowel 
is  omitted,  as  in  xixqax&h  civo)/&t,  <fec.  This  is  probably  the  true  ori- 
gin of  these  forms.  (See  'Buttmann's  Gr.  §  109,  III.)  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that,  so  far  as  usage  is  concerned,  the  above  mixed  paradigm  of 
oida  is  the  only  correct  one. 

For  a  catalogue  of  irregular  and  defective  verbs,  see  §  117. 


311.— §113.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 

1.  Deponent  verbs  are  those  which  under  a 
middle  or  passive  form  have  either  an  active  or  a 
middle  signification. 

2.  The  perfect  of  deponent  verbs  has  sometimes  also  a  passive 
sense. 

3.  Some  of  these  verbs  have  also  a  passive  form  of  the  first 
future  and  first  aorist,  always  used  in  a  passive  sense. 

4.  The  Tenses  of  deponent  verbs  are :  the  present,  imperfect, 
perfect,  pluperfect,  and  paulo-post-future  of  the   passive  form ; 
the  future  and  first  aorist  of  the  middle  form;  and  the^rsf  far 


168 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


§  114,  115. 


ture  and  first  aorist  in  the  passive  form,  and  with  a  passive 
sense.  A  few  have  a  second  aorist  middle.  They  are  usually 
conjugated  by  giving  the  present,  future  middle,  and  perfect  pas- 
sive; thus,  SfymoA,  d£*OfACU,  ' 


312.  -  SYNOPSIS  OF  DEPONENT  VERBS. 


I     Inaicative.        Subjunctive.       Optative.        Imper.    j    Infln.   |    Part. 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut.  M. 
]  Aor.  M. 
1  Fut.  P. 
1  Aor.  P. 
IP.  P.  Fut. 


wanting 


wanting 
Si/O-'M  ^ 
wantinsc 


-oi/A-qv 

-.uevoq  i 

-al{.iqv 
-ilqv 


-ov 
-cro 


wanting 
wanting 
wanting 


-tffQai, 
-affOai, 
-tfffiat, 
-ijvat, 


-tq 


Note.  In  this  table,  the  imperative    and   infinitive  of  the   perfect 
ro  and  didty-ff&cu,  are  changed  by  euphony  into  dtdt$o  and 
6.  7.  17. 


§114.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

313. — Many  verbs  are  occasionally  taken  impersonally;  as, 

a£/o"X£/,  it  pleases  ;  ag^ei,  it  suffices  ;  aufKpeQSi,  it  is  profitable,  &c. 

The  following  are  those  which  are  chiefly  taken  impersonally: 

1.  rtgmet,  it  is  becoming  ;  eTZQsns,  it  was  becoming  ;  TtQSTieiv, 
to  be  becoming  ;  TO  TIQSTIOV,  that  which  is  becoming  ;  pi.  ia  TTQS- 
Tiovra. 

2.  ^eP.£f,  it  concerns  ;  %fi^?  [tefa'jGetj  pefjiskqxe  and  fifyfte. 

3.  doxsi,    it  appears;    Idoxei   (from   ^oxeiw);    edo^s     (from 
doxco) ;  ia  doxovvza. 

4.  dsi,  it  behoves  ;  tdet,  defjcet,  dew,  TO  deov,  ra  dsovra. 

5.  yvQrp  it  is  necessary;  I%QIJV,  XQf'jGet,  %Qtp>ai9  and  ^^;  rb 
,  contracted  for  %Q£aov.     Subj.  ^5. 


314.— §  115.  DESIDERATIVE,  FREQUENTATIVE,  AND 
INCEPTIVE  VERBS. 

1.  DESIDERATIVE  VERBS  are  those  which  denote  a  desire  or 
intention  of  doing.  They  are  commonly  formed  by  adding  aete 
to  the  first  root  of  the  primitive ;  as, 


§  116.  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.        169 


I  laugh  ;       1  R.  y&a-      fehaGeiw,       I  desire  to  laugh. 
,  I  make  war  ;    "   no^e^e-  TToteptjGeiw,  I  desire  war. 


Another  form  of  desideratives  is  that  in  dm  or  idfo,  properly  from 
substantives  ;  as,  from  ftdvavog,  death  ;  ftavardco,  I  long  for 
death  ;  GZQarr^og,  a  general  ;  GrQarqyida),  I  wish  to  be  a  general. 
Also  from  verbs,  by  first  forming  substantives  from  them  ;  as, 


to  buy  ;  (covqTijg,)  covqndco,   I  wish  to  buy. 

/  weep  ;  (xhavGig,)  xhavGidw,  I  am  disposed  to  weep. 


2.  FREQUENT  ATI  VES  are  those  which  signify  repeated  action. 
These  commonly  end  in  £  co  ;    as^QiTtrd&w    (from  QITTTSIV))  to 
throw  from  one  place  to  another,  Mid.  to  throw  one^s  self  this  way 
and  that,  to  be  restless  ;  Grsvd&w  (from  crrtWw),  to  sigh  much 
and  deeply  ;   so,   from   aireiv,    to   demand  ;    am&w,  to   beg  ; 
iJOTfwy,  to  creep  ;  SQTIV&IV,  to  creep  slowly. 

3.  INCEPTIVES  are  those  which  express  the  beginning  or  con- 
tinued increase  of  an  action.     These  commonly  end  in  crxco  ;  as, 
yeveidffxot),  to  begin  to  have  a  beard  ;  qfiaGHG),  to  grow  to  man- 
hood (the  same  as  ^emct^co  and  ijfido))  ;  in  part  transitive  ;  as, 

xa),  to  intoxicate  ;  from  pE&vG),  I  am  intoxicated. 


§  116.  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

315. — In  many  of  the  Greek  verbs,  a  variety  of  forms  appears,  and 
also  an  apparent  irregularity  in  the  formation  of  different  tenses.  This 
is  occasioned  partly  by  the  adoption  of  new  forms  of  the  present  and 
imperfect  tenses,  which  are  used  either  jointly  with  their  primitives, 
if  they  are  still  in  use ;  or  in  their  stead,  if  they  have  become  obsolete, 
while  the  other  tenses  continue  as  regularly  formed  from  the  primitive 
verb ;  and  partly  by  the  use  of  tenses  taken  from  synonymous  verbs  of 
a  different  theme,  in  the  place  of  those  which  have  become  nearly  or 
entirely  obsolete ;  and  thus,  as  it  were,  out  of  the  fragments  of  two  or 
more  verbs,  whose  other  parts  have  disappeared,  is  formed  a  new  whole. 
The  parts  of  this  whole,  being  all  that  remain  in  use  of  their  respec- 
tive roots,  considered  by  themselves  are  really  defective  verbs.  And 
some  of  these,  though  regularly  formed  from  their  own  themes,  yet  not 
being  formed  from  the  present,  to  which  they  are  attached,  but  from 
some  other  verb  related  to  it  in  form  or  signification,  the  whole  verb  is 
not  improperly  termed  anomalous  or  irregular.  This  appellation,  then, 
properly  belongs  to  all  those  verbs  whose  present,  future,  and  perfect, 
do  not  follow  the  common  analogy  of  conjugation.  A  few  examples 
will  illustrate  these  remarks ;  thus,  dvo),  to  go  under,  has  Svvoy,  <?fye*, 
and  diiffxo),  all-different  forms  of  the  present ;  but  the  tenses  of  the  first 
root  are  regularly  formed  from  the  primitive  tfiw,  and  the  second  aorist 

8 


170  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.         §  116. 


i  the  form  in  pi,.  Again,  naa/My  I  suffer,  has  the  future  Tta- 
•fryaa),  and  perfect  TrfTtd&qxa,  from  the  obsolete  present,  TiaOio) ;  the 
2d  aorist  ena&ovj  2  perfect  ninri&ci,  from  the  obsolete  Tiq&o);  and  the 
future  middle  TttiGOfiat,  (§  6.  18),  and  2  perfect  active  niTtov&a,  from 
the  obsolete  niv&o).  In  this  latter  example,  7ido~/o),  the  only  present 
in  use,  with  its  imperfect  eTtaa/ov,  is  a  defective  verb,  having  no  other 
tenses  from  that  root ;  in  like  manner,  the  other  parts  from  their  re- 
spective themes  are  so  many  defective  verbs :  but,  taken  together,  and 
as  attached  to  TTCMT^W,  a  theme  from  which  they  are  not  formed,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  analogy  of  conjugation,  they  form  what  is  called 
an  anomalous  or  irregular  verb. 

In  most  irregular  verbs,  the  irregularity  is  caused  by  the  adop- 
tion of  a  new  present  and  imperfect,  formed  by  certain  changes 
on  the  root  of  the  verb  in  these  tenses,  while  the  other  tenses  con- 
tinue to  be  formed  regularly  from  the  primitive  root  or  theme. 
Thus  from  AH 'BQ,*  is  formed  the  new  present  hapfidvco,  im- 
perfect Ikdpfiavov,  while  the  future  A^oa,  and  all  the  tenses 
following  it,  are  formed  regularly  from  the  root  AHB. 

316. — In  this  way  new  presents  are  formed  from  old  roots  as 
follows : 

I.  By  the  addition  of  certain  letters  to  the  root ;  thus, 

Fut. 


Theme. 

Root. 

let.  add.                  New  Pres. 

1   doxco 

dox 

s        makes      doxs-co 

2  zico 

ti 

v             "          rw-co 

3  ayco 
4  sco 

ay 

8 

vv                       dyvv-co 
vvv                     evvv-co 

5  Ikdco 

&a 

vv       *    "          skavv.'Co 

6    SQSCO 

SQS 

eiv           "          IQSBLV-CO 

Ikdcco 


II.  Of  roots  that  end  with  a  vowel,  some  drop  it  before  the 
added  letters ;  some  change  o  into  co,  e  into  27,  and  others  change 
s  or  o  into  i ;  thus, 

Theme.         Root.     R.  changed,  let.  add.     New  Pres.          Fut. 

1  dpaQtsco      dpagrs      d^agr      av       d^aQrdr-c 

2  ioideco          loids          loid          aiv       ioidaiv-co 

L  L  L 

4  dl.dsco          akde          cthftri        GX 


5  evQsco          evge  BVQI          GX        EVQIGX-CO 

6  J4.AO '  Q      dko  dh  GX 


7    {two)  filO  filCO  GX  filCOGX-CO  filCOGCO 

*  Primitive  th&nSB,  now  dbsolete,  are  printed  in  capitals. 


§  116.          IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  171 

III.  Of  roots  that  end  with  a  x-mute  or  a  r-mute,  the  final 
mute  is  sometimes  dropped  before  the  added  letters  ;  thus, 

Theme.  Root.    R.  changed,    let.  add.      New  Pres.  Fut. 

.  f  ~  • '  -  *  <- 

1  7TOCCVO)  TtQOLy  TtQCX,  GG 

2  ipdda)  ipad  I\LCL  GG 

3  XQayco  xgoty          XQCC  £ 

5  frvfaco  &vqx          frvi]  GX 

IV.  Some  form  a  new  present  from  the  second  root  changed 
before  the  added  letters  by  inserting  v,  which  before  a  ;r-mute 
becomes  in ;  thus, 

Theme.  2  Root.  2  R.  changed,  let.  add.       New  Pres.  Fut. 

1  P./ytfo)  haft  l.av&  av 

V.  By  Syncope  or  contraction ;  as, 

New  Pres. 

fahsw      by  syncope  #A(o  Fut. 

"  "ErPQ  2  Aor.  M. 

by  double  syncope     ogp^w  Fut. 

VI.  By  Reduplication,  viz.  of  the  initial  syllable ;— of  the  ini- 
tial consonant  with  i ; — and  of  i  commonly  called  the  improper 
reduplication  ;  as, 

Theme.  New  Pres.  Fut.     ^ 

iiyw        by  Red.  of  initial  syllable          dydyw  d^o 

dzco  "      ,cons.  with  i    Sideco  dfjGco 

TUlinhsoy,  47—19  TihjGG) 

by  improper  Red.  iGrdco  GTTJGCO 

VII.  By  Metathesis  or  transposition  of  letters,  which,  however, 
rarely  occurs  ;  as, 

Theme.          Root.  New  Pres.  Fut. 

dsoxco         degx        by  Metathesis        dgex        dgsx-G)        deQ^co 
VIII.'  By  Aphceresis,  or  cutting  off  the  initial  letters ;  as, 
by  Aphaeresis  becomes       ^vLco 

"  QSCO 

IX.  In  several,  two  or  more  of  these  modes  of  variation  com- 
bine to  form  the  new  present ;  thus, 

1  By  VI  and  II,  p-oco  becomes  ^/^cojxco,  fut. 

2  By  VI  and  I,  d(jd&)  becomes  didydGKOj,  fut. 


172  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.         §  117. 


3  By  VI  and  III,  dd%a)  becomes  &5«o"xco,  fut.  diddSoo. 

4  By  VI,  jtifVoo  becomes  p^e^co,  and  by  V,  fttjurw)  fut. 

5  By  VI,  Ti'xoa  becomes  rrw'xw,  by  V,  rtrxco,  and  by  VII,  r/xroo, 

fut,  relco. 

6  By  I,  ixco  becomes  txcwco,  by  V,  ?x?>co,  by  I,  fxW.w,  ixveopai,  fut. 

S-eo. 

7  By  VIII,  a%£G)  becomes  #£(»,  by  VII,  e%a),  fut.  both  l£w  and 


317.— §117.   ALPHABETICAL   LIST   OF   IRREGULAR 
ANI>  DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

EXPLANATION. 

In  the  following  Table,  the  words  in  capitals  are  the  roots  from  which 
,  certain  tenses  are  formed,  but  which  are  themselves  either  entirely  ob- 
solete, or  are  merely  supposed,  in  order  to  derive  from  them  by  analo- 
gy the  forms  in  use. 

When  there  is  but  one  root,  or  one  form  of  the  root,  the  numbers 
1,  2,  3,  are  omitted,  as  in  dyo) ; — s.  s.  means  same  signification. 

The  capital  R  after  a  tense  indicates  that  the  verb  is  conjugated  re- 
gularly from  the  tense  after  which  it  is  placed. 

A. 

'Ado),  to  injure ;  (R.  aa.)  pres.  pass,  aarai,  1  a.  act.  ocWcc,  contr.  ao~a,  1 

a.  pass,  adffdyv,  mid.  aaffdftfjv.  Horn. 

"Ayaiiai,  to  admire ;  a  passive  form  from  ayr^u,,  Th.  dydo),  (R.  dya,) ; 
pr.  and  imp.  like  IOTO^OH-  ;  dyd^ofi  ai>,  s.  s.  —  fut.  dyd- 
ffOjuai>,  R. 

ayvv^y  to  break;  from  ayo),  (R.  ay,)  £  aio>,  <fec.,  R.  1  a.  ealcc,  2 
a.  p.  idyrjv,  2  perf.  laya.  with  a  passive  signification.     It 
commonly  takes  the  syllabic  augment,  probably  owing  to 
its  having  anciently  had  the  digamma  as  the  initial  letter ; 
thus,  pres.  fdyo),  I  a.  c'fai-a,  and  then  ca|oc ;  <fcc. 
w,  to  lead;^(R.  ciy,)  f.  ai&),  <fec.  R.      It  has  a  reduplication  in  the  2  a. 
vyayov,  perf.  rj/a,  and  with  the  reduplication,   dyrjo/a, 
(poetic  ayvo),  ctylvo).)     1  a.  ^£ct,  a^a^  d^aff&at,. 
.     See  ardotvo;. 

o),  epic  and  poetic  lengthened  for  al'^w.     Regular. 
).     See  at>£ccvo>. 

i,  to  blow  ;  (fr.  aw,  R.  a,)  -retains  77  throughout ;  as,  drjva^  pass. 
ay/tai,;  except  the  participle  ads,  divroq:  the  passive  form 
has  an  active  sense. 

to  take;  (1  R.  aige,  2.  IX,  from"EAJl,)  f.  aiyrjffoj,  or  -eW,  &c. 
R.  Attic  fut.  lAw,  2  aor.  cUo^  mid,  fl^d^v,  Alexandrian 
form  for  fUo^r  (239-5).  Sometimes  with  an  Attic  redu- 
plication in  the  perfect;  as,  ci^cu^xa, 


§117.          IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.  173 

Afyoi,  to  raise;  (R.  a^>,  from  "APSl,)  f.  d^ai,  p.  ^xce,  1  a.  ^>ce,  <fec.,  R. 
Aiff&dvoluat>,  to  perceive ;  (1  R.  aicr&f,  2  aiffd-,)  f.  m.  aurdy/croiea*,  <fec. 

R.  from  AIZOE'OMAI,  §  116,  IL  2  aor.  r^Oo^v.  ' 
*A/.a/it<»,  to  trouble ;  (1  R.  dxce/£  and  d/,  2  d/,J  f.  dxa/'tjcro),  <fcc.  R.  2  a. 

with  redup.  rfxoc/ov ;  pres.  Mid.  d^o/iai, ;  perf.  pass,  dx?/- 

/f/*c«,  to  6e  afflicted,  to  grieve. 
'Aldcuvo),  tr.  to  make  to  grow  ;  (R.  oA&uv,)  f.  dAJarw,  tfec.  R.  imp.  ^'AJa- 

vov  from  "AAASl. 

I'D.drjffxo).  intr.  to  grow;    (R.  dA<5>,)  f.  a&fcjcrw,  <fec.  R.  from'AAJE'Jl. 
*Ahdvo),  dJieo.uat,,  to  shun;-(R.  dfav,  fTom'AAEY'Jl,)  1  a.  jjltwra,  1  a. 

m.  jjj.fvdfii]v  and  7jfadfii?]V,  by  elision  of  tr  for  ^A* 
AA£$O),  to  avert ;  (R.  dA* |«  and  dAex,)  f.  dAf Sqcro),  <fec.  from  L^ 

1  aor.  m.  dAf^d^/yv,  <fec.  from  'AAEK'JL    2  a.  poet.  • 

xov  by  redupl.  and  syncope  for  r/'Asxov. 
'A/.wdlo),  tr.  ^o  roZ/  /  (R.  ctAtr^f,  and  dAt,  from  'AAI'Jl)  f.  dklffo),  <fec.  R. 

1  a.  p.  part,  ahvdri&tis  ;   p.  p.  part,  dhvdq/uivov     Mid. 
sense,  £o  wander,  to  roam. 

'AUffxo),  to  take;  (R.  dAo,)  f.  dAoiaw,  <fec.  R.  from  ' AAO '/2>  2  aor. 
IdAcov,  or  /jAo>v,  frorn"AAJlMI.  This  verb  has  a  passive 
signification  in  the  aorists  and  perfect  active. 

'Ahralvo),  to  be  wanting,  to  sin;    (1  R.  dAm,  2  dAtr,)  f.  dAtT/Jcrw,  <fcc.  R. 

*  »» .     &  * f 

2  a. 


"AM.oftcib,  to  leap ;  (R.  «A  from"AAJl,)  f.  eUotuto*,  2  a.  y).6/iiiv,  R. 
l^AiWxw,  aAi^xctvo;,  ^o  avoid;  (R.  cUi;x,)  fat.  alv$o>,  <fec.  R.  from 
X/2,  s.  s.  as  eUc'w. 


^  s.  s.  as  ( 

»,  dA<2pato),)   ^o  ^ram  ;  (1  R.  dA?>£,  2  dAy,)  fut.  \ 
«&c.  R.  from  'AA'&E'JL  2  a.  r/Ayov. 
3cvw,  ^o  err ;  (1  R.  d/^a()T6,  2  d^ot()T,)  f.  d^a^TT/ffoj,  <fec.  R.  2  a. 

ij,uaQTov,  from  'AMAPTEJL  } 
rxo>,  ^o  miscarry ;  (R.  d^/?Ao,)  fut.   d(«^Aw(rw,  &c.   R.  from  d/*- 

/9A6&). 

w,  and  d/tTiKT/vioiLicti,.     See  l/oj. 
xiffxoij  to  miss,  to  err;  (1  R.  d^TrAocxf,  2  d/t^rAocx,)  f.  d^« 

<fec.  R.  2  a.  " 
ri»l**.     See  tvvv,ui,. 
'Avaywo')Gxo).     See  ytroiffx 
'Avallffxo),  to  read.    See  < 
'Avddvo),  to  please ;  (1  R.  dtTe,  2  txJ,  3  dj,)  fut.    d(5v/(7<M,   <fec.  R.   from 
dcyto;,  2  a.  eaJov  for  ^J dov,  2  perf.  ed^a,  with  the  syllabic 
augment,  s.  s.  as  ijdo). 

'Avot>yvi'0),dvoiyviiiui>,dvoiy(>)j  (dvdand  olyo;,)  to  open;  (R.  oty,)  f.  dvol^d), 
p.  drt'w/a,  &c.  R.  often  with  both  temporal  and  syllabic 
augment ;  as,  imp.  dvwyov,  2  perf.  dvtonya,  <fcc. 

9Avd>yo),  to  order;  (R.  drojy  and  dvo)ys,)  f.  dro;|oj,  <fec.  R.  or,  avo)yfjGV, 

&c.    R.    from  dvo)yio);    hence,  pres.  imperative,   droi/^, 

dvo'j/&'(t),  &c.  by  syncope  for  dvo')ytj&^,  dvo)yer(t>f  <fec.  as  if 

from  *ANSITHM1,  2  perf.  ^Vojya. 

'ATiavgdo),  to  take  away;  (from  duo  and  "^4 FP/2,  R.  at^,)  imperf.  R. 

from  dTtavQo).  From  this  verb,  or  more  probably  from 
*AIIOY*PJl,  (the  obsolete  Th.  of  dnovffifa,  to  dispossess,) 
comes  1  aor.  inf.  dTroi'^at,  part,  ajfovgctq,  and  dTtovgdjut- 
vos,  used  by  Homer,  Pindar,  and  Hesiod,  in  the  sense  of 


174  IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE  VERBS.         §  117. 

"  to  rob  ;  "  "  to  plunder  ;  "  "  to  encroach  on  the  limits,  or 
property  of  another." 
t,.     See  e/fr 
See  oAAj'/<t. 


,  from  VAPSI,  to  Jit,  or  adapt  ;  (R.  dg,)  fut.  a^w  and  CL^GO 

(§  101,  4,  (6.)),  p.  //^xa,  cfec.  R.  2  perf.  fyaga  and  ao/^a, 

with  the  Attic  reduplication  from  //^>«. 

AgiGxo),  to  please  ;  (R.  «(>£,)  fut.  a^fc<ro>,  tjoes.a,  <fcc.  R.  from  a^eo). 
Au^o),  and  ott/£ceytt,  tr.  to  increase  ;  (LI.  acif.)  fut.  a^i^do),   <fcc.  R.  from 

AYSEJl;    likewise,    a^'oj,  af£/y0-w,  <fcc.  from  'AEZE  'JL 

Mid.  intr.  to  increase. 
"Az&oftai,,  to  be  indignant  ;  (R.  a/#*,)  fut.  dxdtJGo/nai,,  or  -tVo/iat,  (fee. 

R.  from  n/Oio^ai,. 
"Aw.     This  verb  has  four  significations  in  its  different  parts  ;  viz.,  1. 

aoj,  to  6foz0;  imp.   aov,  commonly  a^t.  —  2.  aw,  to   sleep  ; 

1   aor.   a(7a,  and   af(7a.  —  3.   au),  to  satisfy  ;  f.  acro>,  1   aor. 

«(7ot,  pres.   pass,   area,  and  actrat,  inf.  act.  afjitvai.  Horn. 

contr.  for  a^tfi/at,  for  common  form  atw.—  4.  aw,  to  in- 

jure;  see  aaw. 


Balvw,  ftdffxo),  pifido),  to  go  ;  (R.  /?a,)  fut.  /?/Ja-o,wat<,  p.  /9e'/9//xa,  &c.  R. 
from  BASl\  2  aor.  e'/fyv,  fromj£>HMI;  imperat.  /9^0t,  in 
compounds  shortened,  as,  xara/?a.  N".  B.  This  verb  has 
also  the  causative  signification,  to  cawse  to  #0  ;  the  future 
Pqffo),  and  1  aorist  active  zfiqffa,  have  exclusively  this  sig- 
nification. 

BdM.o),  to  throw  ;  (1  R.  /9aA,  and  /?aAf,  2  /?aA,  3  in  compounds  /9oA,)  fut. 
/9aAw  (Poet.^aA^vjaw),  /9^/?aAv/xa,  <fec.  R.  as  if  from  f?.^- 
AEJl  ;  hence,  by  syncope,  J3AE'JL  Hence  the  synco- 
pated forms  eptyv,  e^A^ro,  /9A^cr«9at,  for  ifid)*t}v,  t^aAvyTo, 
d-av,  &Q.  Epic  perf.  pass.  /fyftU/^iat,  as  if  from 


Bao~rd£o),  to  carry  ;  (R.  paffTad,  pass.  /9a(7Ta/,  211,)  f.  /9ao"Tao"oj,  1  a.  p. 

f/?aovra/#77i'. 
Bu)>(jy.o),  to  live  ;  (R.  /9to,)  fut.  pt,o')0~o),  &Q.  R.  from  /9too;  ;  2  aor.  ipiwv, 

from  piwjui,  (all  in  use). 
Bkaaidvo),  to  bud;  (1  R.  /9Aa(TTf  ;  2  /9Aa<7T,)  f.  fttaarrio'o),  as  if  from 

BAA2TESI,  2  a.  H{ttaff>eov. 
BJMGv.oy,  to  go  ;  (R.  //oA,  as  if  from  MO'AJl,)  2  a.  e/foAov,  f.  m. 

juai,  perf.  ^£^/9Ao>xa  (40-3d)  for  ^eVAe/jxa,  as  if  from 

(by  metath.  40-8th  for  ^6Aoj),  whence  /9A6oj  and  ^),MG-/.M. 
Bodo),  to  cry  out  ;  (R.  /?oa,)  f.  /?o/y(7o),  <fec.  R.     The  Ionics  contract  o^ 

into  o;,  making  pMGo^av  for  fiorjGo/Aai,  ;  1   a.   zfiojGa  for 

ipoqGa.     1  a  p.  inserts  (7,  i/Jo'uyOqv. 

Boffxo),  tr.  to  feed  ;  (R.  fioGxt,)  f.  /?o<7x//<7w,  <fec.  R.  from  ^orrxtw. 
Bov).opa,t>,  to  will  ;  (1  R.  />oi>Af,  2  /9o«'A,)  f.  /9oj'Ayj(7o^at,  <fec.  R.  from 

BOYAEll  ;  1  a.  p.  EpouMjdqv,  and  with  double  augment 

r}/?oi>A>y  #/?!/;  hence  also  2  perf.  /9t/?o^Aa. 
,  fii,fi()o')G/.<»,  to  eat  ;  (R.  ,2(>o,)  fut.  /tyaiffw,  &c.  R.  from 

2  aor.  ZpQow,  as  if  from  Pgupi,. 


§117.         IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  175 


r. 

JTct^io),  to  marry  ;  (R.  yap*,  and  ya/u,,)  fat.  ya/n^ffo),  and 

f.  m.  yaniaofjiat,,  &Q.  R.  1  aor.  iyd/tyaa,  K  T.  ;  and 
as  if  from  FA' MSI,  or  rH'MSL 

ttvto,  in  Homer,  Ae  foo& ;  probably  ^Eol.  for  I'A* TO  ;  _y  being  put  for  f, 
and  v  for  A,  as  in  the  Dor.  jjv&e  for  fy.&e  ;  thus,  Pe'AfTo 
would  become  yivfto,  and  by  syncope,  yivto. — Also  yivco 
2  a.  m.  of  yivopcu,  by  procope  and  syncope  for  iyivtio. 

rrt&Lo>,  to  rejoice  ;  (1  R.  yy&f,  3  y^#,)  f.  yqdJjffo),  2  perf.  yiyrj&a,  hav- 
ing t^e  signification  of  the  present. 

o),  to  grow  old;  (R.  yr^a,  and  yi?£,)  f.  yf^wroj,  &c.  R.  from 
yrjgdo) ;  1  aor.  eyr^a,  from  JTffPJl'',  y^dvou,  pres.  inf. 
from  yrjQqfti,. 

i,,  yivo,uat,,  to  become  ;  (1  R.  y?r#,  2  ytv,  3  yov,)  fut.  ytvyaopcu,, 
&c.  R.  from  rENESl,  2  perf.  yeyoycc.  K  B.  Allied  to 
this  verb  is 

r£ivoftat>,  to  be  born  ;  (R.  ytw,)  used  in  the  present  and  imperfect ;  the 
first  aor.  lyfivdprp  is  used  actively,  to  beget,  to  bear  ;  hence, 
oi  ytwdfiivot',  parents  ;  TJ  ytwapivrj,  a  mother. 

r<,yvo')Gr.o),  ywwffxo),  to  know;  (R.  yvo,)  fut.  yvuao),  p.  tyvojxa,lfut.p. 
yvoxr^do^a^  p.  p.  eyvowpcu,  R.  from  FNO'Jl ;  2  aor. 
Zyvow,  from  yvM/m,,  sub.  yvo),  opt.  yvoiqv,  imper. 
inf.  yi/wvoc/',  part,  yvoix;. 


A. 

to  learn  ;  (1  R.  dae,  2  $a,  3  da,)  fut.  darjffo),  &c.  R. 

by  epenth.  from  <Jao; ;  whence  p.  didaa,  (§  101,  5),  2  aor. 
p.  eddqv,  or  act.  from  3drjf.ii,,  from  Joeo;  comes  ddar.o),  and, 
by  reduplication,  (5wk)t(rxo>,  ^o  teach. 

to  divide,  to  feast,  to  entertain  ;  (R.  <Jat,  and  <5c«5,)  f.  Saiao),  more 
frequently  ddo~o),  p.  (Jt&xxa,  <fec.  R.  from  JA'ZJL 

to  burn ;  (1  R.  dau,  2  da,  3  cty,)  second  perfect  Sidya,  regular 
through  all  its  moods. 

,  to  bite ;  (1  R.  (ty/.,  2  dax,)  fut.  d^o/tat,  <fec.  R.  from  dtfKfl ; 
2  aor.  c'daxov. 

vo),  to  sleep  ;  (1  R.  daq&t,  2  daQ&,)  fut.  doQ&rtGoiia(,,  <fec.  R.  from 
A  APSE  SI ;  2  aor.  Zdag&ov,  poetic  e^a^-ov. 

to /ear  ;  (1  R.  &*d,  2  dwJ,  3  dotd,  also  2  &,  3  ^,  from  AT  SI,}  fut. 
dilffo),  p.  (Jt&t-za,  or  dt'&uxa,  2  perf.  dedo^a ;  also  from 
^/J'/2,  2  aor.  e^or,  2  perf.  difaa,  (poetice  dudta),  pi.  dfd/a- 
(jiiv,  by  syncope  didwiv,  &c.  and  imper.  de^^-t,  with  a 
present  sense,  to  fear  ;  the  middle  Sio^ca,  with  its  deriva- 
tives & d/trxoAtat,  df  dtV^o^at,  <fec.  have  an  active  significa- 
tion, " to  frighten"  .  " 
dfixvvjiu,  to  show  ;  (R.  d* *x,)  f.  df tio;,  <fec.  R.  from  AEI'KSl ; 

Ionic  AEKSl,  hence  de|o),  tdf^a,  df'dfywa*,  &c. 
to  need;  (R.  d*f,  from  AEEOMAl,)  fut.  dtijo-opat,,  &c.  R.     In 
the  active  voice  it  is  used  impersonally ;  as,  d«r,  d«J<7«*, 
&c.     See  Impersonal  Verbs,  §  114. 


176  IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.      "    §  117. 

/lib),  to  bind  ;  (R.  &,)  f.  <J>/<rco,  &c.  R.  3  fat.  pass,  fadqaojuai,,  seldom 


. 
,  to  teach  ;  (R.  dt,$ax,  and  fodaGxt,)  f.  <5Y(Ja£w  (and 

fodldaza,  &c.  R.     §  116,  IX.  3. 

to  escape  ;  (R.  fya,,)  fut.  fydffo),  <fcc.  (R.  from  dgdo),  a  regular 
verb  in  use)  ;  2  aor.  edfjtjv  (from  4PHMI),  for  which  also 
efyaVt  etc;,  a,  &c.  Subj.  dgo),  ac;,  a,  <fcc.,  Opt.  dQaltjv,  Imp. 
3(>a&i>9  Inf.  dgavai,,  pt.  (^at,-.  N".  B.  This  verb  is  used  in 
composition  only. 
£o  £^m&  ;  (R.  <5bxf,  and  c5bx,)  f.  do£o),  &c.  R.  from  JO'KSl  ;  —  also 

fut.  doxfoo),  <fec.  R.  but  less  in  use  than  the  other  forms. 
I  can  ;  (R.  dvva,)  like  urtofiai,  f.  Suv^ffo^a^  &e.    R.   from 

dYNA'OMAl;  1  aor.  pass.  Idvvdff&yv  and  ldvvrt&riv. 
,  tr.  £o  enclose,  intr.  to  <?o  m^o  ;  (R.  ^^)  fut.  Svaw,  didvxa,  &Q. 
R.  ;  2  aor.  edvv,  from  JYMI. 

E. 

*Eytl()o),  tr.  ^o  w«A:e  ;  (1  R.  zytiQ,  2  eyf^,  3  syoQ,)  R.  Mid.  intr.  to  awake  ; 
2  «a.  yyQO/iyv,  by  syncope  for  ^yf^o^Vf  2  p.  a.  lygyyoQa, 
reduplication  anomalous. 

"Edo>,  eV^-w,  and  tV^/oj,  to  eat  ;  (1  R.  Ife,  2  IJ,  3  etf,  also  2  R.  <pay,  from 
g>ayoj,)  fut.  idiaw,  p.  pass.  ldydio~fiat,  for  »/&0>teu  ;  1  aor. 
pass,  rjdia&qv  from  IJeoj  ;  f.  m.  Mo^oct-  and  ldoT>ju,ai,  ;  2  perf. 
T/'dcc,  Attic6  !'&/&*,  p.  a.  /f(yoxa  (by  change  of  vowel  for 
T^^XOC),  Attic  £(Jjy(5bxcc,  2  aor.  act.  eqpayov,  from  ydyo)  ; 
(cJ'o^ctt  is  rather  the  present  used  in  the  sense  of  the  "fu- 
ture.) 
w,  #e'Ao;,  &i  AEOJ,  /  msA  ;  (R.  l^f  A*,  and  #*A*,)  fut.  l&ttfffo),  and 

•&th'jffo),  Tt&etyy.a,  R. 

w,  /am  wor^  ;  only  with  Epic  writers  ;  2  perf.  *lw#a,  Ionic  «w^a, 
al  in  the  same  signification.     Plup.  tio')&tw,  I  was  wont. 

El  A  SI,  to  see  ;  (1  R.  tid,  tide,  2  Id,  3  o^,)  an  old  verb,  which,  in  the 
active  voice,  has  only  the  2  aor.  udov  and  !(5oi>,  used  as  a 
substitute  for  the  aorist  of  o^oto;,  to  see  —  a  verb  which 
has  only  the  present  OQ  do),  the  imperfect  wqaov,  Ionic 
WOMV,  Attic  io)()o)v,  and  the  perfect  fo^axcc,  perf.  pass. 
lo^d^wctt.;  the  other  parts  being  made  up  from  o'7zrof*cu>9 
and  *!<?oj,  as  here.  In  the  middle  and  passive,  fidot  has 
the  present  fl'tfo^at,  .the  -imperfect  ddoptjv,  1  aor.  flffd^irjv 
(i(vadfjLriv\  like  the  Latin  videri,  meaning  to  be  seen,  to 
seem,  to  appear,  to  resemble.  Eifiofiyv,  or  idofiyv,  the  2  aor. 
mid.  is  also  used  in  an  active  sense,  particularly  by  the 
Attics,  in  the  imperative  idov,  tdto~&f,  as  an  interjection, 
see,  lo,  behold. 

Of  this  verb  the  2d  perfect  olda,  strictly  /  have  seen, 
perceived,  or  comprehended,  is  never  used  as  a  perfect,  but 
only  as  a  present,  meaning  I  know,  having  the  pluperfect 
-jj&w,  as  an  imperfect  I  knew,  and  the  future  m.  tiffo/m*, 
rarely  tidrjao),  I  shall  know,  or  experience.  The  other 
parts,  viz.  the  aorists  and  perf.  are  supplied  -from 
<rxw.  —  For  the  parts  of  oida,  see  §  112,  IX. 


§  117.          IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  177 

EIKJl,  I  resemble,  I  seem  ;  (1  R.  fix,  2  IK,J5  otx,)  is  used  only  in  the 
2  perf.  oc-xot,  Ionic  eotxcc,  Attic  * t/cc,  employed  as  a  present 
in  the  sense  of  I^ain  like,  I  seem,  I  resemble.  Inf.  tixivoii,, 
part,  ftxoisj  -woe,  -dg.  Hence  the  adverb  ftxoTwc;.  From 
this  verb  conies  ffo/.w  and  IGXM,  to  compare. 

Etta)  and  ttM.o),  to  roll  up,  press  together,  more  commonly  H'/COJ  or  tD.ioj ; 
(R.  «A,  * i).t,  or  t  *>U,)  fut.  -^<TOJ,  <fcc.  1  aor.  inf.  elaou,,  eg/0-ctt, 
part.  cA(7otc,  perf.  pass,  eft/tat,  1  aor.  p.  idj.qv,  inf.  a/ijra*, 
or  aA//,it*i'€u,  part.  a,).tl(±,  all  of  which  have  sometimes  the 
spiritus  asper,  and  sometimes  the  spiritus  lenis. 
Eijul,  I  am  ;  (R.  e,)  from  *jE/2 ;  fut.  mid.  taouat,,  imperfect  m>.  See  301. 

But 
l?tyt*,  1  goy  comes  from  "//>;_£  m.  fwro^at,  p.  ftcc,  Attice  ^i'a,  imper*. 

^'fty,  Ion.  ?Jia,  ^ot.    "See  303. 

Elllfl,  or  ETJJlj  to  say  ;  used  only  in  the  aorists  ;  1  aor.  Una,  2  * tTror, 
1  aor.  mid.  dnd^v.  The  initial  *l-  is  retained  through 
all  the  moods.  Compounds  used  by  the  poets  are  ivi. 
IviffTio),  tviffTtu).  The  other  parts  are  supplied  from 
which  see. 
w,  to  shut  out ;  (R.  ti$y,)  f.  tiQ%w,  &c.  R.  perf.  pass.  3  pi.  e ly 

Epic  for  dyyi-iivot,  del,  272-12.     But  uforvvfit,  f.  *t^£w, 
means  to  shut  in. 

to  drive  ;  (R.  IAa,)  fut.  eAot(To;,  p.  ?/Aaxa,  <fec.  R.  from  c^ao),  also 
in  use.    The  Attic  future  is  DM,  cActg,  e/.a,  <fec.  for  llctGo), 
lldfffiq,  &Q. 
"EJixw,  and  sfavu),  to  draw  ;  (R.  IAx  and  l^xi/,)  f.  t).^o)  and  ilxvffo),  1  aor. 

fi'A^cc,  <fec.  R. 
'Evo&o),  to  shake,  to  agitate  ;  (R.  ivo'&,)  2  perf.  }]vo&a,  Att.  iv^vo&a ;  used 

chiefly  in  compounds  ;  as,  Tiag-tvtjvoOtv,  dv-yvo&tv,  <fec. 
"Evvitfjiv,  to  clothe  ;  (R.  I,)  fut.  eo-oj ;  p.  pass,  ti/uai,,  and  also  icy/at,  from 
c!£/2 ;  d/.iq)i>ivvvfii^  has  Attice  a/^t-w  for  d^iq^icfo) ;  ce^qptccCw 
and  a^qp/crxoj  are  rare  forms  of  the  same  word. 
"Eno).     See  flVreo. 

"Eno),  to  be  actively  employed ;  (1  R.  ITT,  2  <77T,)  2  aor.  EGTIOV  and  effTto- 
^  priv,  as  if  from  2IIESI.     Mid.  tnopou,,  to  follow,  fut.  eVo- 

^tctt.     See  t/o) ;  to  be  found  chiefly  in  compounds. 
"EPrSl,  and  £$$o).    See  ^eCoJ.    See  also  in  tfoyo). 

*E()t,daivo),  to  contend  ;  (R.  «£*&,)  fut.  io^fjffo),  &Q.  from  'EPIJES1,  per 
epenth.   from  'EPI'JJl ;    hence  IgiZo),  s.  s. ;  fut.   loicro)j 
&G.  regular. 
See  e(>«. 

to  go  away  ;  (R.  e^f,)  f.  I^^CTOJ,  &c.  R.  from*EPPEJL 
-aivw,  to  make  red ;  (R.  fgv&t,  and  loevd;}  fut.  lov&rjffo),  &c.  (R. 
from  'EPY&EJl),  and. also  fyivaw,  as  if  from  'EPEY'GJL 
to  go  ;  (1  R.  eltvS;  2  «At>#,  3  IJiuO;)  fut.  ihvao/.iai^,  2  perf. 
jjlvO-a,  Attice  itfhi&a,  from  'EAEY'OJ!;  whence_also  2 
aor.  act.  r^&ov,  by  syncope  for  "HAYQON.  For  fy.&ov, 
i).&tlv,  the  Doric  writers  have  jjrd-ov,  iv&tlv.  In  some 
tenses  ft,at  is  more  in  use  than  to/o/uat,. 

"EPJl,  by  metathesis  ^e'w,  and  by  epenth.  l^&o;  also  f^o),  by  ep.  ft^eo;, 
from  one  or  other  of  which  the  tenses  in  use  are  regularly 
formed;  (1  R.  eg,  ${,  and  iqt,  2.  1^,)  thus,  from  ego),  1  aor. 
m.  yod/uyv,  from  (3/0),  fut.  ^ffo),  and  1  aor.  p. 


178  IRREGULAR   AND    DEFECTIVE   VERBS.          §  117. 

and.'e^iO-rjv;  from  loio),  fut.  igiffo),  p.  Hoy/.a,  p.  pass,  fl- 
^jy.acu,  fut.  £^<T>,  2  a.  111.  tjoojuyv;  and  probably  from  tifjio), 
comes  the  fut.  ttofoottcu. 

"Eoojuai,,  in  the  sense  of  to  ask,  occurs  chiefly  as  an  aorist  to  lowrdo), 

scil.  ?jQo,u?]v,  subj.  'eyMjuai,,  imp.  EQOU,  also  f.  ly-qaopai,. 
to,  to  eat ;  used  in  the  pres.  and  imp.  for  sdw.     See  &)«. 
,  to  sleep;  (R.  tufa,)  fut.  fiJd/[cTW,  &e.«R.  from  EYdE'll,  augments 
the  initial  vowel,  thus,  yuSov,  so  in  compounds,  xa&rfi- 
dov,  &c. 

*#,  to  find ;  (1  R.  «»£*,  2  *»*£,)  f.  evorjGoy,  <fec.  R.  from  EYPE'Jl,l>y 
epenth.  from  EY'PJl;  whence  a  form  of  the  1  aor.  m. 
tvod/iyv.  This  verb  has  e  before  -OriGopai,  and  -Oyv;  as, 
tvyiOyv;  239-5, 

vofiCU'  and  dntzfrdvo.ucu,  I  am  hated;  (R.  i/frf,)  fut.  sydyGonai,, 
perf.  p.  ijxfhjpa*,  R.  from  i/Oio/na^  from  %/dw,  poetic, 
and  used  only  in  the  present. 

VE%0),  to  have ;  (1  R.  c/,  and  0-7*,  2  a1/,)  fut.  !'!fw  (with  the  aspirate),  or 
a/fao),  p.  «r/f/xa,  (fee.  R.  from  2XE'Jl,  also  (j/t^o),  2  aor. 
ea/ov,  siibj.  ff/w,  opt.  G/ol^v,  imp.  d/e'c^  inf.  G/tlv.  This 
verb  has  another  form  of  the  present  and  imperf.  i<7/o) 
and  Iff/o^,  in  the  sense  of  to  hold,  which  has  the  future 
(7///<7w,  &c. ;  so  also  G/i&(>),  eff/fd-ov.  In  the(  compounds 
observe  the  following  varieties ;  viz.  avi/o)  (for  'which 
also  a,va,G/iQ-w),  in  the  middle  has  a  double  augment  in  the 
imperf.  and  2  aor.  JjVag'o/**?*',  ^vtG/o^v:  djunf/o),  to  en- 
close, has  f.  &p$l£<>)}  2  aor.  'tju7it,o~/ov;  mid.  a/.i7iiyo^av  or 
aju7ii>G/V£O/uat<,  to  wear j  fut.  d/uy^oftat',  2'<ior.?]/,i7Ti,G/6]u,?]V', 
v7tvGxvio/.ioiVj  to  promise,  fut.  ^Trocr/v/O'o/fat,  <fec.  R. 
£V'OJ,  £o  coo^; ;  (R.  tt/'f ,)  fut.  iyt]Gv),  <kc.  Reg.  from  'EWE'JL 

"EJ!,  to  place  ;  (R.  I,)  Defective,  1  a.  tiGa,  f.  m.  tiaofiat,  1  a.  m.  fiGa^v. 
The  derivatives  from  this  root  are,  1.  yiuai,,  I  sit  (perf.  for 
tl^ai,),  307  ;  2.  I'Co/tott,  £o  s<?£  c?ow;ri  (whence  I'Co)  and  xa&l- 
CoJ,  R.);  3.  evvv/iir,  to  clothe;  and,  4.  itjpi,,  to  send,  T/CTW, 
etxce,  R.  304. 


Zdo),  to  live  ;  (R.  fo,)  f.  m.   L^GQ^G^  ;  2  aor.  I'fyv,  as  if  from  ZHMI. 

For  the  contractions  of  this  verb,  see  251,  Obs.   2.     To 

supply  the  defective  parts  of  this  verb,  tenses  are  bor- 

rowed from  /frooj. 
Ztvyvvo)  and  £fvyvv/it,  to  join;   (I  R.  &vy,  2.  &y,)  f.  tev^o),  <fec.  R.  from 

ZEYTJl,  2  a.  p.  Jtvyij* 
Zowvvo),  £owvv[it>,  to  gird  ;  (R.  Co,)  f.  £w<ra>,  <fec.  R.  from  Cow.  perf.  pass. 


H. 

to  sweeten,  to  please  ;  (R.   -^J,)  f.   yGo),   <fec.   R.  s.   s.   as   dvddvo), 

which  see. 

,  ^o  s^  ;  see  "£/>,  and  307.  5 

by  aphseresis  for  qp^/t*/,  I  say  ;  likewise  rjv,  ?/,  for 

309. 


§  117.          IRREGULAR   AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  179 

e. 


See 

6ijq>o),  to  be  amazed;  (1  R.  #?/g>,  2  &aq>,  3  ^(jp),  used  only  in  the  2  aor. 
eratpov,  and  2  perf.  TE'^-T/TTCC,  in  which  the  second  aspirate 
is  changed  instead  of  the  first,  contrary  to  43-4.  ' 

Qiiydvo),  to  sharpen;  (R.  #/fy,)  f.  &t]$o>,  <fcc.  R.  from  &yyo),  8.  s. 

©tyyctvw,  £o  towc-A  ;  (R.  vhy,)  f.  #t£o),  <fec.  R.  from  #/yw  ;  2  aor.  e&iyov. 

Svijcrxo),  to  die;  (1  R.  $rctand  #av,  2  &av,)  f.  m.  &avoT>/uai,  ;  p.  r&h^xa, 
and  by  syncope,  ti&vcta,  whence  the  common  forms,  T£#-- 
va/tfv,  Tf&vao~t>v,  tt&vdvcu,  <fec.  (265-5,  6,  c)  ;  from  QA'NSl 
comes  f.  m.  &avoufiou,,  and  2  aor.  a.  s&avov.  From  the  p. 
a.  vid-vqxa,  comes  a  new  present  rt&vtjxo),  f.  Tf&v^o). 
Parts  also  occur  as  if  from  a  form  in  ytt*;  thus,  vi&va&i,, 
tt&vaitjv,  as  if  from  vld-vypt. 

&OQVV(>),  &OQWIM,,  #£W(Tx«,  to  /«op,  or  spring  ;  (R.  ^o^>,  from  00'P/2,) 
f.  m.  &o(>ov/u,ai,,  Ion.  {htqiopa*,  2  aor.  $&OQOV. 

1. 

IJPY'NJl,  idQVfit,  from  f^uw,  Reg.  tr.  to  set^  or  place  ;  (R.  M^u  and 

td'^i'y,)  f.  itiQvffo),  &c.  R.  1  aor.  p.  ifyvv&ijv. 
rl&vo)t  %o),  to  set  ;  (R.  t'Cct,  and  £<$,)  fut.  tC^o-oj,  <fec.  R.  from  tfotoJ  ;  and 

iffo),  &c.  R.  from  i'Cw.     In  like  manner  %a&£dvo),  xa&ifo, 

<fcc.     See"£:/>. 

"IvifjLiH  to  go  ;  pres.  m.  it  pa*.    See  303. 

7^t,  to  ««id;  (R.  I,)  f.  ^'<rw,  p.  *Ixo,  1  aor.  ^xo,  from^/2.  304. 
'Ixdvot,  l*vionat>,  to  come  ;  (U.  tx,)  from  txoj,  s.  s.  R.  whence  they  have 

f.  m.  tSofia*,  perf.  pass,  ly/uai,,  2  aor.  ixon 


^ 

o^ctt,  to  propitiate  ;  (R.  JAo,)  f.  Ucecro/ta^  <fec.  R.  from  Uao;;  whence 
lAHMIy  intr.  to  6<e  propitious,  of  which  some  parts  occur 
in  Homer. 
iat.     See  niro/non,. 
to  yfc/ioto;  m.  foaftcu,  used  in  the  singular  number  by  Doric  wri- 

ters only.     See  fwJw. 
See  £/oj. 

JiC. 

to  *ft;  (xara  and 


.    See  308. 

u,  to  order;  '(R.  xtkt)  f.  xfA^o-o^at,  <fcc.  R.  from 
Kegavvvw,  Kt^dwi'/n^  to  mix;  (R.   xtga,)  fut.  xtgdao),  <fec.  Reg.  from 

xf^cco).     Sometimes  x£x£dxa,  by  syncope  for  xfxe^axa,  in 

the  perf.  active.     So  also  in  the  perf.  p.  g&^apcu  and  Ion. 

xixQ-q/iat.     Sometimes  it  inserts  ff  before  -frijffOftcu,  in  1  f. 

pa;-s,  sometimes  not.      Hence   also    y.tgvdo),  from   which 

xigvyiM,  s,  s.  imper.  xfyvrj  for  xiovttO-*. 
oy,  tr.  to  make  anxious  ;  (1  R.  xiy<)>,  3  x^tf,)  f.  xij#q*o>,  2  p.  xltij&a, 

with  a  present  intransitive  sense,  to  be  anxious.     Whence 

the  Homeric  future 


180  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.          §  117. 

,  to  make  gain  ;  (R.  x?  Q  daw,  and  xf  gda,)  f.  xtgdavo)  and  xf^>- 

dfjdM  ;  perf.  xf  x^N^xa,  or  -ana. 
vo),  to  overtake;  (1  R.  x*/*,  2  xt/,)  f.  y.yijffo),  <fcc.  R.  from  xt/e'oj;  2 

aor.  txt/ov,  and  from  Kl'XHMl,  l/.r/qv. 
Qq/ui,,  to  lend;  (R.  /£«,)  fut.  /^ffw,  <fcc.  R.  from  /^ccw. 
,  £0  #0  ;  not  used  in  pres.  indie.,  but  in  the  other  moods  and  imper£ 

ind.,  and  is  accented  like  the  2  aor. 
la^w,  to  cry  aloud  ;  (1  R.  yJ.ayy,  2  xAccy,  3  xA/yy,)  f.  xActy£o),  &c.   R. 
from  xAocyyo;  ;  2  perf.  xtxtyya,  as  if  from  xA//Co;.  2  a.  ex- 
Aayov. 
\IHO,  to  hear  ;  (R.  xAu,)  Reg.  except  the  imperative  pres.  xAud-*,  as  if 

from  7C4  FM/,  as  well  as  xMt,  reg. 

vb),  xoQivvvfjii>,  to  satisfy  ;  (R.  xo^f,)  f.  xo^f'do^and  xo£?/(7w,  <fec.  R. 
from  xoglo)  ;  p.  p.  x£xo££0>tat.    Kogio),  reg.  £o  sweep,  is  a 
different  verb. 
cry;  (R.  x^oty,)  f.  x(>a|oj,  <fec.  R.  except  the  imperative  per- 

fect xEx^a/tft,  2  a.  I'x^otyov. 

vo),  XQ  spawn  pit,  and  x^/J^v^itt,  ^o  hang  ;  (R.  x^f/jct,)  f.  KQff^dffo), 
&G.  R.  from  KPEMA'JL    Attic  f.  x^w,  «<?,  cc,  &c.  264, 
(1).     Perf.  p.  y.qiiA,a[A,di,  without  the  augment. 
Kttivw,  to  kill  ;  (1  R.  XT?  n>,  2  xrav,  3  XTOV,)  fut.  XT*  rw,  cfcc.  R.  ;  2  aor. 

exravov,  and  CXT?/V  from  KTHMI. 

KvUvdo),  to  roll  ;  (R.  xvA*,)  fut.  xvUffot,  &c.  R.  from  xi;A/o;,  s.  s. 
Kvvto),  to  kiss;  (R.  xi;^6,  and  xu,)  fut.  %VVT]O~OJ,  <fec.  R.  ;  also  xiVw,  &c.  R. 
from  xuetf. 


Aay/dvo),  to  receive  by  lot  ;  (1  R.  Ay/,  2  Ace/,  3  Aoy/,)  f.  Jir^o),  &c.  R.  from 
AH'XJL     2  aor.  fcla/ov,  perf.  W.oyza.  §  101,  5. 


to  take  ;  (1  R.  Aiy/9,  2  Aa/9,   3  Aiy/9,)  f.  m.   AOjttoe     p.   iilijqiot, 

&Q.  R.  from  AH'BJL     Ionic  perf.  h).d^y.a  ;  likewise  £ 

}.d^'o/u.at>,  &G.  R.  as  if  from  AA'MBJL    Also  of  the  same 

signification,  — 

i,,  fax£vua*t  dep.  Ionic  and  Doric  forms  for  'Jia/u  fidvo). 
AavQdv(t\  to  be  hid;  (1  R.  ;^#,  2  ;.a#,  3  A^tf-,)  f.  Aiycrw,  &c.  R.  from 

A^i9-o;;  in  the  middle  voice,  — 
Aav&dvoju,ai<,  sometimes  lij&oftai,,  to  forget;  f.   A^ffo/^at,  <fec.  from  the 

same. 

Aovo),  to  wash  ;  (R.  Aoi',)  in  the  Attic  dialect  generally  omits  by  syn- 
^  cope  the  short  vowel  after  ov  ;  thus,  l-'Aoi',  eAoivtw,  Aor^oct, 

kovo&at,,  <fec.  for  eAot^,  iJiovOftfV,  Aoi'o^ott,  }.ovio~&at,,  <fec. 
Aoviut,  in  some  of  its  tenses  occurs  in  Homer. 
./4o>,  to  wi^;  found  only  in  the  sing.  Aw,  A%,  A^,  plur.'Aw^fg,  Awvrt,  Doric 

as  if  from  AA'Jl,  contracted  like  Quo),  251,  Obs.  2. 

M. 

Mav&dvw,  to  learn  ;  (1  R.  jua&t,  2  /u.a&,)  fut.  ju,a&qo~oju,ai,,  p.  f 

&G.  R.  from  MAQEJl  ;  2  aor.  fya&ov. 
Md%o/4,ai,y  to  fight  ;  (1  R.  /««/*,  2  ^ot/,)  fut.  /wot/^o'o/woc<'  and 

&c.  R.  from  MAXEOMAL 


§  117.         IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  181 

Mdo),  an  old  form  from  which  arise  the  three  following  defective  verbs ; 
viz. 

1.  Perf.  pipcta,  to  strive ;  with  a  present  signification. 

2.  Pres.  m.  ^dofjtat>,  contr.  puipou,,  to  desire,  to  seek. 

3.  Fut.  and  1  aor.  m.  ^ccffo^ctt,  Iftacrdftyv  also  from  /tato/tcc*,  to 

seek. 

,  to  intoxicate;  (R.  /uf&v,)  f.  jtt&vffo),  &Q.  from  pt&iHa,  s.  s. 
i,  to  care  for ;  (1  R.  fttfa,  2  /tf A,  3  fiijb)  f.  i*t/.ijffo),  from  MEAE'ft. 
2  aor.  eptlovt  perf.  pefiijla.     In  the  active  voice  it  is  used 
mostly  in  the  third  person  impersonally,  ^'Aa,  ifitcAt,  &c. 
§114,2. 

to  be  about  to  be;  (R.  ptJlfc,)  f.  ^AAfJcrw,  <fec.  R.  from  /tfJU&fc 
/icu>,   to  bleat;  (1  R.  yWf/xcecJ',  2  /ttax,   3  /JT/X,)  f.  ftrjxdaofictif,  &c. -R. 
(/«7xa£fc>,  s.  s.)  2  aor.  e^axov,  2  perf.  ^ae^xa,  from  MH'KJi. 
),  f4iyvv^,  juiffyo),  to  mix;  (R.  /wty,)  £  ,tu£(tf,  <fec.  R.  from  ^/yw,  2 

aor.  £>/^v  from  M1THMI. 

crxo),  to  remember  ;  (R.  /tva,)  fut.  pvycro),  &Q.  R.  from  yttraoj. 
Mogyvvw,  pogyvvfti,,  to  wipe  off;  (R.  pogy,)  f.  ^MO^^OJ,  <fcc.  from  MQ'PFSl. 
Mvxdopcu>,  to  bellow ;  R.  Doric  forms,  2  a.  Z/tvxov,  2  p.  ptfivxa,  as  if  v 
from  MY'KSl. 

N. 

Naio),  intrans.  ^o  dwell ;  (R.  yoc,)  f.  vdffw,  &c.  R.  from  roco;,  trans,  to  cause 

to  dwell. 

Ni£o),  to  wash. ;  (R.  WTT,)  f.  viyo),  <fec.  R.  from  WTTTW,  s.  s. 
ZVoc'w,    to  think;  reg.  is  contracted  and  accented  by  the  Ionics  like 

/?OCCGJ  J  thus,  f.  vo'wd),  1  a.  evo)ffct,  ivivwto,  <fec. 


O. 

to  smell  ;  (R.  6J,  and  ou,)  f.  offo\  R.  also  oCeVo)  and  fyjffo),  p. 
w^xo,  <fec.  R.  from'OZK/2,  2  perf.  wJce,  with  the  Attic 
reduplication  6'do>da,  with  a  present  sense. 

Oiyvvo),  oiyvv/ui,,  to  open;  (R.  oty,)  f.  ollfoj,  Ac.  R.  from  olyo;.   See  dvolyw. 
Olda.     See^i^oi,  and  310. 

j,  oiddvo),  old  Iff  %o>,  to  swell;  (R.  oidt,)  f.   oidijao),   &c.  R.   from 

q^eo),  Th.  s.  a. 

,  and  ot^at,  to  think  ;  (R.  otf,)  f.  oiyffOjuai,,  &e.  R.  from  oUopai>', 
imperf.  MOfiyv,  oio\  with  the  diphthong  resolved,  is  re- 
tained in  some  -dialects. 
*,  to  ao;  (R.  en/*,)  f.  oixvaojiiai,,  p.  w/^ott,  R.  as  if  from  OIXE'O- 


^ 

,  ohff&dvc,),  to  glide;  (1  R.  olur&t,  2  6).(,ff&,)  f.  ohff&ijffo),  &c. 
R.  from  eJUff4&4  s.  s.  ;  2  aor. 


o}.Xv/Ai>,  to  destroy;  (1  R.  oAf,  2  oA,  3  o/,)  f.  oAtVo),  &c.  R.  from 
*QAESl  ;  Att.  fut.  a.  6Aw,  m.  olovftai>,  2  aor.  ojAo^T/v,  p.  wAa, 
Attice  tUojAa.  Other  forms  are  oAAtw,  oAe'xo;,  6AcVxo>. 
'0/tvvo),  opwiM',  to  swear  ;  (1  R.  q/*o,  2  6^0.,  from  "OMJl,)  f.  o^offo),  &Q. 
R.  from5OMO'/2,  commonly  with  the  reduplication  in  the 
perfect;  f.  m.  opovficu,  hom"OMJ2. 


182  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.          §117. 


ii,,  to  wrajoe  off  ;  (R.  o^uo^y,)  f.  OJUOQ^O),  <fec.  R.  s.  s.  as, 
o),  which  see. 
q/Lii,,  ovlvij-fii>,  to  help;  (R.  ova,)  f.  o^ffo),  <fcc.  R.  from  *  ON  All.     2  a. 

o>r^  f/v. 

'Og/uaivo),  #o  rwsA  ;  (R.  6$  pa,)  f.  oQfirfao),  &c.  R.  from  o^do),  s.  s. 
*0gvvo),  o^vtyu,  to  excite  ;  (R.  o£,)  f.  o(xro),  (§  101.  4.  (6.)  )  from  "QPSl  ; 

f.  o^w  from  o^w,  2  perf.  o^o^a;  hence  a  new  present, 

ogffo),  s.  s.  and  also  o^oi^w. 
'OffyQaivo/Liai,,  to  smell  ;  (R.  oayQcuv  and  OGVQCI,)  fut.  o(j(f>Qavov^ai>,  R. 

and  oaq^ffofia^  &c.  R.  from  *0£<bPE'QMAJ,  by  epenth. 

from  ouyyopai,,  from  which  oMnpQopijv  ;  hence  also  oo^ccw, 

and  oo~q>()dojuat>,  s.  s. 
Ovrdo),  ovTa^o),  ovrdffy.o),  OY'THMI,  to  hit,  to  wound  ;  (R.  oiVra,)  fut. 

ourdffo)  and  (HfffOWj,  cfec.  R.  from  ot'rao;,  infin.  ovrd/ttvai,, 

Horn,  for  oiirdvai,. 
Opt  /Aoj,  o?'Aw,  ofphffxdvv),  to  owe  ;  viz.  money,  punishment,  i.  e.  £0  6<? 

guilty  ;  (1  R.  oqpftAf  and  o<pAf,  2  6<pf  A,)  f.   6<jpftA>/(7o;  and 

bfp^GMj  &c.  R.  from  ogpf  J.e'o)  and  6<pAeeo  ;  2  aor.  o)yflovt 

used  only  in  the  expression  of  a  wish  ;  thus,  atf-5  w<jp*  Aov, 

0  ^Aa^  /,  *!'#•'  wrpfAfc,  0  ^Aa<f  ^Aow,  &c. 
,  to  forfeit  ;  (1  R.  o<jp/f,  2  6gDA,)  f.  oqitfffo),  p.  iatpAqxa,  ,2  aor. 


U. 

Uaio),  to  strike  ;  (R.  Trca  and  7tat,f,)  f.  Ttalffo)  and  Ttarfffo)  ;  the  remain- 

ing tenses  are  from  the  root  Trat. 
lldcr/o),  to  suffer  ;  (1  R.  ;7T*r#-,  seldom  Tratff,  2  TraO-,  3  TrovO-,)  fut.  m. 

Tieivoficu,  §  6,  18  ;  2  perf.  nknov&a,  ;  both  from  UENQSl  ; 

2  aor.  eTia&ov,  also  fut.  7Za9-rjO~o),  (fee.  R.  from  IIAQE'Jl. 
l',  to  taste,  to  eat  ;  (R.  Tree,  from  11^4'Jl,)  I  aor.  lizaffdpyv,  p.  p. 


o),  to  digest  ;  (R.  TT?  TT,)  f.  Tftyo),  <fec.  R.  from  Ttinto),  s.  s. 
Hexavvvo),  7zeTdvvvf.ii,,  to  expand  ;  (R.  nera,)  f.  7r*Ta(ro;,  R.  from  Tterdo), 
exc.  p.  p.  TteTiTafiat,,  which  is  from  the  syncopated  form 
Ttrdtf).     Other  forms  are  m,Tvdw  and  TZiTvyjui,,  s.  s. 
TtiiafA.aVf  Trtidojuai,,  to  fly  ;  (R.  TTfTot,)  f.  ntTrjGOfACu,,  &c.  R. 
from  ntrdo/jia^  ;  2  aor.  CTTTT/V  from  iTtfrj/M,  ;  also  p.  p. 
TTOTq/uat,  from  TTordojuai,  ;  by  syncope 
inio^^v,  and  so  of  other  tenses. 
See  ytro). 

o),  Tirjyvvo),  nryvvpt,,  to  fasten  ;  (1  R.  7T7/y,  2  Tray,  3  Tn/y,)  f. 
<fec.  R.  from  flHTJl;  2  perf  niTtriya,  2  a.  pass.  zTt 
.vqiui,,  to  approach  ;    same  signification  as  TTtAa&D;  from 

which  the  other  tenses  are  taken. 

)  and  ni^n^r^n.^  to  fill  ;  (R.  Y1AA,  whence  nlfAn^rj^,)  f.  jrA-//- 
o-o),  <fec.  R.  from  YlAASl  ==  xtfO-o).  When,  in  composi 
tion,  /t  comes  before  the  initial  TT  in  this  word,  it  is  omit- 
ted before  TrA  ;  as,  i^Ttlnlrini  ;  so  also  in 

IlifiTtQr^^  to  burn  ;  (R.  TI^CC,)  f.  TT^Q-O),  &o.  R.  from  HPA'Jl  =  TrgrjOo). 

Ilivo),  to  drink  ;  (R.  TTO  and  Trt,)  fut.  TTOJCTO;,  &c.  R.  from  /IO'/2  ;  2  aor. 

ETrtor  from  ^-/oj,  Th.  ;  imperat.  commonly  Trr^-t,  sometimes 

nit  ;  fut.  m.  niopai,,  probably  the  present  used  in  the  fu- 


§117. 


IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


183 


ture  sense  ;  or  by  elision  of  <r  for  niGo^av  ;  mot^ce*  is 
also  found.     From  this  theme  also  comes 

JJtftiffxo),  to  cause  to  drink  ;  (R.  TTI,,)  f.  TilGw,  <fcc.  R.  from  nio). 
JTIi<7i(Jcio-%(i),  to  sell  ;  (R.  Tiya,  from  llPA'JL.)     The  forms  in  use  are  ni- 
Ttydxcc,  niTiQ&nai,,   iTrgdO'qv,   ttfTtgdGo/Liai'.     The  future 
and  aorist  active  are  wanting. 

o),  Attic  and  poetic  Tiirvo),  to  fall  ;  (1  R.  n  it  and  TITO,    2  Tzeff, 
from  LIE2EJI,)  f.   TTCO-W,  1  a.   e/rfda,  from  the  ancient 
T1ETSI;  and  nrutaw,  p.  ninrmxa,,  from  FITO'Ji  ;  2  aor. 
ETIIGOV,  f.  m.  7r*(7o<Vtou<,  as  if  from  LIE2ESL 
J,  to  lead  astray  ;  (1  R.  Tikayy,  2  Tr/ay,)  f.  TT/aylw,  <fcc.  R.  from 

n).dyyo)  ;  2  aor.  tnlayov. 
ao),  to  strike  ;  (1  R.  Tr^.v/y,  2  7rA//y  for  TrAot^,)  f.  TrA/J^o),  <fec.  R.  exc. 

2  aor.  p.  blJjjYMr  ;  compounds  regular  throughout. 
Jf  to  buy  ;  of  which  there  is  in  use  only  2  aor.  fTt^i^oi^rjVf  as 

an  aorist  to  oWo^at. 

,  to  learn  by  inquiry  ;  (1  R.  TTfi/^,  2  nvO,)  f.  mvffoncu,  &c. 
R.  from  poetic  niv&oftat,',  2  aor.  m.  f'—  -n-'  — 


rPo)vvvo), 


with  intrans.  signification,  /a?/i  torn  in  pieces.     2  a.  pass. 

ifjydyijv. 

i^Uj  to  strengthen  ;  (R.  £o,)  f.  (jwffoj,  <fec.  R.  from  CPO'/Z. 


2. 


,  o~fiivvv/iit,,  to  extinguish  ;  (R.  a  fa  ,)  f.  Gplaoij  <fec.  R.  from  <r/9eo>  ; 
also  p.  HffjUqxa,  2  a.  Efffiqv,  intr.  ^o  ^ro  OM£  ;  from  2BHMI. 
2tvo),  to  move,  impel  ;  reg.  except  that,  like  verbs  beginning  with  Q, 
it  commonly  doubles  a  after  the  augment,  and,  in  the 
1  aor.,  omits  rr,  the  tense-sign  ;  thus,  1  aor.  %o~fftva,  mid. 
v,  perf.  pass,  foevfiou,,  235,  Obs. 
i',  ffy.idvdo),  ffxidvq/ui>,  to  scatter  ;  (R.  (Txf^a,)  fut. 
Attic  ffr.i  dw,  &Q.  R.   from  crxfJccw  ;  p.  p.   laxi- 


6,  18. 


. 

,  to  dry  up  ;  (R.  <rx*A  and  <rx«Af,)  f.  (rxf  Aw,  R.  also  crxaAr/ffoj,  p. 
£(7xAv/xa  (by  syncope  for  eVxctAyyxa),  1  aor.  effxffAa,  2  aor. 
IVxA^v,  from  ZKAHMJ 

Gprfi,  &c.  251,  06s.  2,  to  ?t'/'/x  ,  (R.  (r/ta  and 
<fec.  1  aor.  p.  £<j>t77/0^v,  from  (7^7/70),  s.  5. 
>),  to  make  a  libation  ;  (R.  GTitvd,)  f.  GTittGo),  <fec.  R. 


,  . 

2iOQivvvu),  Giopivvvfju,,  to  spread  ;  (R. 
ZTOPEJl;  also, 


,       .      .        ,       . 
f.  GTOOSGO),  <fcc.  R.  from 


184  IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.          §  117. 


a),  GIQUVVVH*,  to  spread;  (R.  GTQO,)  f.  GTQMGO),  &e.  R.  from 
2TPO'1>,  by  metathesis  and  syncope  from  STOPESL 

2/ilv.     See  e/oj. 

2wZo),  to  save  ;  (R.  awd  or  crew,)  f.  GO'JGO),  &c.  R.  exc.  1  aor.  pass.  EGO)9-qv 
instead  of  IGMG&^V  and  £Gao)Or^vr  from  the  older  form 
Gaou). 

T. 

Taldw,  to  bear  ;  (R.  rAce,)  f.  tliJGo),  <fcc.  reg.  from  the  syncopated  form 

r/.do),  s.  s.  ;  2  aor.  M.ijv9  from  t&tjfM. 
Ti[A,vo),  to  cut  ;  (1  R.  Tf//,  also  rjua  and  ty^y,  2  rot^a,  3  TO^,)  fut.  Tf/teo, 

reg.  also  f.  r/tffovi  and  T/*^W,  from  r/taa  and  T/tyyo)  ;  2 

aor.  sra/iov  and  eTjtavov,  —  sometimes  ertfiov. 
Ti^GOfjicu,,  intr.  #o  c?r?/  ;  2  aor.  inf.  pass.  ttgijvai>  and  tt£<Fqpeira*9  as  if 

from  eT&Qtrrjv. 
Tfapov  and  enr/iov,  a  defective  2  aorist  used  in  Homer,  ^o  wieetf  rn^A, 


),  #0  6ear;  (1  R.  TJX,  2  r*x,  3  TOX,)  f.  T&W,  <fec.  R.  from  TE'KJl; 

2  aor.  eTtxov,  2  perf.  TCTOXO&. 
Tivo),  rwvvo),  tivvv^,  to  expiate  ;  (R.  -r^)  f.  T/(TOJ,  <fec.  R.  from  T/W,  to 

f  to  bore  ;  (R.  r^ot,)  f.  TQIJGO),  <fec.  R.  from 


. 

Tt,Too')Gxo),  to  wound  ;  (R.  r^o,)  f.  rQo')0~o),  &e.  R.  from  T^OOJ. 

Tqi/o),  to  run  ;  (1  R.  &Qt%  and  dgafA,  2  (5^>a/t,)  f.  {jge^o),  p.  fofydiftiixci, 
244,  ^a:c.  <fec.  R.  from  APA&Ul  ;  2  aor.  sfyafiov,  f.  m. 
^a^foi^iu, 

TQV/W,  to  consume  ;  (R.  rgv/o,)  1  aor.  irQi>xo)Gaf  <fec. 

Tvy%dvo),  to  be,  to  obtain  ;  (1  R.  TI>/£  and  TH>/,  2  TI//,)  f.  ivyjfia},  <fec. 
R.  from  TYXE'Jl;  2  aor.  eri'/or,  fut.  m.  TCV^O^GU  from 
tiv/0).  —  .ZVbfe.  This  verb  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  regular  kindred  verb  Tfi'^oJ,  ^o  prepare  ;  fut. 

Tfl'^OJ,  &C.   R. 

Y. 

cu,,  to  promise  ;  (from  vno  and  <r/£fo),)  f.  vTtoG^GOjuai,,  <fec.  R. 
c 


<I>dyo/u,ai>,  pres.  m.  £0  ea£ ;  (R.  gxxy,)  also  the  future  for  <payo~>ju,at,,  in  the 
N.  T.  and  later  writers  by  the  same  anomaly  as  I'Jo^ott 
and  niofjiai, ;  2  aor.  ecpayov.  The  rest  of  the  tenses  are 
formed  from  tG&io).  See  tJoj. 

<I>aGxo).     See  ^77^  t. 

w,  to  kill ;  (1  R.  qp*v,  2  qpoti/,)  2  aor.  yricpvov  and  eTtfyvov,  by  redupl. 
and  syncope  for  syavov  ;  part.  Tityvow,  accented  on  the 
penult,  p.  p.  TTE^pa^at,  3  f.  p.  ntyriGOfiav.  Hence 
from  3d  root  yov. 


§  117.          IRREGULAR  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  185 


w,  to  bear  ;  used  in  the  pres.  and  ijnpertjl  R.  ot,  eVx,  and  cwyx, 
2  &*yx,  3  eVo/,)  f.  olffw  (from  OJ/2),  y"HNEXA,  <fcc.  R. 
from  'ENEKJl ;  also  1  f.  pass,  oia&yffonai, ;  1  aor.  act. 
». ..-  tfvfyxa  for  ?/rfy£a,  from'ENETKJl,  Attice  commonly 
im**a,  <fcc.  ;  2  aor.  jjviyxov,  from  the  same ;  2  pert  7/Vo/a 
fromWKX/2. 

t,  to  say  ;  (R.  qpa,)  f.  qp/Jcrw  ;  2  aor.  evyv. '   See  309. 
o),  to  come  before,  to  anticipate ;  (R.  g>#«,)  f.  q>0do~o)  or  q>&^ffo)f 

<fcc.  R.  from  <bQASl,  2  aor.  eigpd^v  from  y&qjui. 
<!>&ivo),  to  corrupt,  to  fall ;  (R.  $>$•*, )  f.  <p&io~o),  <fcc.  R.  from  q>&io)f  s.  s. ; 
other  forms  are  rp&la&o),  q>&wiw,  and  q>&wv&o),  used  in 
the  pres.  and  imperf. 
tfrgayvvo),  (podyvv/ui,,  to  enclose  ;  (R.  g^ay,)  f.  g>£a£oj,  (fee.  R.  from  <PP>4'- 

1V2,  same  as  (pgdffffo),  s.  s. 

(Pi^Cw,  to  flee,  to  put  to  flight ;  JR.  gwy,)  f.  .<pv£w,  <fec.  R.  Other  kindred 
forms  are  qpi'jycn  and  (ptvyo),  R.  and  it  has  the  derivatives 
givtdo)  and  yvfyfii,. 

t&vQo),  to  mix,  to  knead  ;  (R.  q>v^  and  yvocc,)  f.  yvodffo),  Ion.  qworjcro) ;  old 
fut.  (pvQffo) ;   1  a.  £(pvQO~a, ;  p.  p.  ni<pv()[A,a,t,  and  TT^qpi'^a^at-. 
6e^  ;  (R.  gir,)  If.  g>uo-&),  1  aor.  ffipwroc.     But  the  perf.  niyvxa, 
and  2  aor.  e^i/v,  have  a  passive  or  intransitive  siflmifica- 
.      tion,  ^o  fo  begotten,  to  be,  to  become. 


X. 

),  <o  recede,  to  stand  open,  to  contain  ;  (R.  /«#,)  fut.  /do~o), 
<fec.  R.  from  X^4'JJ1  (s.  s.  with  IC4'Z/2,  whence  xe'xceoyjat 
or  xexa^at)  ;  2  aor.  -e/aJav  and  XEXCC^OV,  2  perf. 
derivatives  and  varieties  of  forms  are  numerous. 


Xalvo),  zdaxo),  xctffxdto),  to  gape  or  yawn  ;  (R.  %a.wj)  f.  /ccvw,  <fec.  R. 
b),  a  derivative  from         ' 


from  yaivb),  a  derivative  from  X^4'Ji  ;  from  which  also 

xaCo>  and  /d^o)  ;  which  see  above. 
to  rejoice  ;  (1  R.  %ai,(),  later  zcuQf,  2  /«£,  3  /^(>,)  f. 

<fec.  R.  ;  2  a.  p.  i/d^^v,  perf.  xt/doq/uat,  and  xE/a 
Xar^avoj,  to  tgrrasj»  ;  (1  R.  /cwt),  /fv^,  2  ^a  <),  3  /avd,)  f.  m. 

§6,  18  ;  2  aor.  £>a<W,  2  perf.  xe/avJct. 
Xdffy.o).     See  %aivw. 
Xio),  to  pour  out  ;  (R.  /fi;,)  f.  %iva<,),  &c.  R.  1  aor.  e/evcra  and  «/f  a  (by 

elision  for  E/tuffa)  ;  hence  imperative  %iov,  /(dro),  <fcc. 

infinitive  yiou,  ;  also  f.  /eo),  /*£<,-,  /ft,  mid.  yionat,. 
~()do).    This,  verb  has  five  different  forms,  with  as  many  different  sig 

nifi  cations  ;  root  of  all,  /£«. 

1.  XQCLMj  to  give  an  oracular  response  ;  regular. 

2.  xizQ-qui,  to  lend  ;  like  i'trr  ///<». 

3.  /o/J',  ^  is  necessary  ;  partly  like  verbs  in  (,n  (see  Impers. 

'  Verbs,  §114). 

4.  /£«o//ca,  to  use;  in  the  contracted  tenses  takes  q  for  a, 

's  251,  Obs.  2, 

5.  ano/Q^,  it  suffices  ;  pi.  a,7ioy^)aiv,  inf.  aTro/^j',  <tc. 
yrQwvwi.ii,  to.  colour  ;  (R.  ^o,)  f.  /^wcrw,  tfec.  R!  p.  pass,  xe- 


186  SIGNIFICATION  OF   ADVERBS.       §  118,  119. 

Xwvvvo),  x<0vvvpt>)  to  heapy  to  dam  ;  (R.  /o,)  f.  /wffw,  &c.  R.  from  #000, 
6.  s.  perf.  pass.  xe/o)O /tat. 

JL 

fl&lo),  to  push  ;  (R.  v)0-  and  w.9-*,)  lias  the  syllabic  augment  through- 
out ;  thus,  imp.  lo'tdovv,  f.  w<7«  and  o)&r>ffo),  regular  from 
both ;  1  f.  p. 


§118.  INDECLINABLE  WORDS  OR  PARTICLES. 

318. — The  Indeclinable  parts  of  speech,  sometimes  denominat- 
ed Particles,  are  those  which  suffer  no  change  of  form  by  inflec- 
tion. They  are  the  Adverb  (which  includes  the  Interjection), 
the  Preposition,  and  the  Conjunction. 

THE   ADVERB. 

319. — An  ADVERB  is  a  word  joined  to  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb,  to  modify  it,  or  to 
denote  some  circumstance  respecting  it. 

Adverbs  may  be  considered  in  respect  of  Signification,  Deri- 
vation, and  Comparison. 


§119.— THE  SIGNIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS. 

320. — In  respect  of  signification,  adverbs  may  be  arranged  in 
Greek  as  they  are  in  Latin  and  other  languages,  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads  : 

1.  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  ;  comprehending  those  which  signify, 

1st.  Pest  in  a  place.  These  generally  end  in  &i,  at?  oi>,  tj,  01, 
%ov,  yji ;  as,  dyQo&i,  in  the  field. 

2d.  Motion  from  a  place.     These  generally  end  in  &sv  or  &e 
as,  ayQO&w,  from  the  field. 

3d.  Motion  to  a  place.  These  generally  end  in  dsj  GS,  £e ;  a? 
ayQorte,  to  the  field.  324-6. 

4th.  Motion  through  or  by  a  place.  These  are  generally  femi- 
nine adjectives  in  the  dative  singular,  having  bdcp  under- 
stood ;  as,  &Uf*  by  another  way. 


§119. 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS. 


187 


2.  ADVERBS  OF  TIME;    as,  vvv,  now;   Tors,  then;  nors,  some- 
times, &c. 

3.  ADVERBS  OF  QUANTITY;    TIOGOV,  how  much;    noLv^  much; 
oA/j'O/1,  a  little,  <fec. 

4.  ADVERBS  OF  QUALITY  ;  these  end  in  co£ ;  sometimes  in  a  and 
rj  (which  are  properly  datives  of  the  first  declension) ;  also  in 
//,  i,  £i,  dor,  dip,  (m,  and  £. 

5.  ADVERBS  OF  MANNER  ;  (viz.  of  action  or  condition,)  including 
those  which  express  exhortation,  affirmation,  negation,  granting, 
forbidding,  interrogation,  doubt,  &c. 

6.  ADVERBS  OF  RELATION  ;  or  such  as  express  circumstances  of 
comparison,  resemblance,  order,  assemblage,  separation,  <fec. 

7.  ADVERBS  OF  EXCLAMATION  ;  in  other  languages  usually  de- 
nominated Interjections.     (See  321,  Obs.  2.) 

321. OBSERVATIONS. 

06«.  1.  Some  adverbs  have  such  an  affinity,  that,  beginning 
with  a  vowel,  they  are  INDEFINITES  ;  with  TT,  INTERROGATIVES  ; 
with  T,  REDDITIVES,  or  responsives,  as  follows : 


INDEFINITE. 


INTERROGATIVE. 


e   c/        j  which  way. 
ft  om»\  by  what  means. 


»*  1 

which  way? 

T^rTf  or  (  this    way,    or 

by  what  means  ? 

rcti'iTy,  (  by  this  means. 

TTOTf,  ; 

tqvixa,  when? 

TOTf,        TV/l'/XOt,         T/yW- 

y.avra,  then. 

7l6frtV 

whence  ? 

ToOtv,  thence. 

77  0~',   O 

t*  no  Q-if,  where  ? 

To/H,  there. 

7l6(JOV 

how  much  ?  \iier  ? 

TO  (Tov,  so  'i  finch,     [ner. 

TTolor, 

after  what    man- 

rotor,  after  that  man- 

7TOO-CCX 

i^  how  often  ? 

roffdxu;,  so  often. 

oTf,  OTiort,  jvxa,  when. 

of)  fv,  OTTo^fV,  whence. 
of',  or  b'i'H,  wjtere. 
oVoi>,  how  much.    . 
oiov,  after  what  manner 
ovdut;,  how  often. 

Obs.  2.  Under  adverbs  in  Greek  are  classed  those  particles  ot 
exclamation  which  express  some  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind,  and 
are,  in  the  grammars  of  most  other  languages,  denominated  In- 
terjections. The  most  common  of  these  are  the  following,  which 
express  — 

Rejoicing  ;  as,  !ov,  Ico.  Condemning  ;  as,  co,  (f£v. 

Grieving;  as,  lov,  w,  and  o>.  Admiring;  as,  w,  fiafiai, 

Laughing  ;  as,  a,  ci.  Deriding;  as,  lov,  co,  o. 
Bewailing  ;  as,  at,  oi  /co,  ororot.  Calling  ;  as,  oa. 

Wishing  ;  as,  s  /,  e  i\Js.  JZnjoining  silence  ;  as,  ?y,  r/. 

Rejecic&g  ;  •  as,  aTzays.  Threatening;  as,  oval. 

Praising;  as,  ace,  evye.  Raging;  as,  svoi. 


188  FORMATION"  OF   ADVERBS.  §120. 

. 

§120.  THE  FORMATION  AND  DERIVATION  OF 
ADVERBS. 

322. — A  few  adverbs  in  Greek  are  primitives;  as,  vvv,  now ; 
%afial,  on' the  ground  ;  ##4'>  yesterday. 

But  the  greater  part  are  derivatives,  and  are  of  two  classes. 

323. — I.  The  first  class  of  derivatives  consists  of  such  words  as 
are  not  strictly  speaking  adverbs,  but  are  so  denominated  from 
being  sometimes  used  in  an  adverbial  sense,  either  by  virtue  of 
their  signification,  or  by  ellipsis  for  an  adverbial  phrase ;  of  these 
the  following  are  examples  : 

1.  The  accusative  of  neuter  adjectives  ;  as,  nQ&rw,  to  TIQW- 

vov ;  TtQwra,  ra  rtQwra,  first ;  ra  pdhara,  chiefly  ;  6%v, 
sharply. 

2.  The  oblique  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns ;  as, 
Gen.  bpov,  together  ;  from  opog,  united. 

ovdapov,  never  ;  from  ovdapog,  no  one. 
Dat.    xvxtap,  around  (i.  e.  in  a  circle)  ;  from  y.m'kog,  a  circle. 

t(i%Ki,  swiftly,  Ivith  swiftness  ;  from  vd%og,  swiftness. 
Ace.  MQXijv  and  a.Q%dg  (sup.  xard),  from  the  beginning  / 
from  dQ%i],  the  beginning. 

dixqv,  as,  like  ;  from  dtxq,  manner. 

3.  Verbs  are  sometimes  used  as  adverbs ;  thus, 

The  imperative ;  as.  aye,  Sh,  i'de,  &c.  I 

The  2d  aorist  active ;  as,  oyelov,  wyshov  ;  from 
The  present  optative  of  slpi]  viz.  siev. 

Obs.  1.  To  these  may  be  added — 

1st.  Nouns  compounded  with  prepositions ;    as, 

out  of  the  way. 
2d.  Prepositions  united  together ;  as,  naQW,  abroad. 
3d.  Prepositions  joined  with  adverbs ;  as,  ZTteira,  then. 

324. — II.  The  second  class  of  derivatives  consists  of  such 
words  as  have  undergone  a  change  of  form,  and  are  used  only  in 
an  adverbial  sense.  These  are  so  numerous  and  varied  in  form 
and  derivation,  that  a  perfect  classification  cannot  be  given.  The 
following,  as  being  the  most  important,  may  be  noticed ;  viz. 

1.  Adverbs  in  co£,  express  a  circumstance  of  quality  or  man- 
ner, and  are  for  the  most  part  formed  from  adjectives  by  chang- 
ing o£  of  the  nominative  or  genitive  into  cog ;  as,  cp&cog  from  (pt- 
hog  ;  acocpQovag  from  crcaqp()coi>,  gen. 


§121.  COMPARISON   OF   ADVERBS.  189 

2.  Adverbs  in  i,  or^j,  express  a  circumstance  of  manner,  and 
are  generally  formed  from  nouns ;  as,  dvcupel,  without  bloodshed  ; 
avrox&Qi,  with  one's  own  hand. 

3.  Adverbs  in  11  and  vei  are  formed  from  the  verbal  adjec- 
tives in  iog  and  tvog  ;  thus,  ovofiaari,  by  name  ;  dmdQwtt,  with- 
out sweating.      So  also  those  in  dyv  (the  characteristic  of  the 
verb  being  changed,  when  necessary,  according  to  the  laws  of 
Euphony,  §  6,  2) ;  thus,  from  fiarog  is  formed  fiddqv,  by  steps 
(from    paw) ;    from   OV^^TTTOS,    GvM.fj{ldt]v9   collectively ;    from 
XQVTitog,  xQvfidqv,  secretly,  &c.     Sometimes  the  termination  ddqv 
is  added  ;  as,  GXOQddtjv,  scattered. 

4.  Adverbs  in  tan  come  from  verbs  in  /£co,  derived  from 
nouns  signifying  a  nation,  party,  or  class,  and  signify  after  the 
manner,  language,  &c.  of  such  nation,  &c. ;  as,  E&rpn&tit  after 
the  manner  of  the  G-reeks  ;  dvdQanodiGZi,  after  the  manner  of 
men. 

5.  Adverbs  in  dov  and  qdov  are  for  the  most  part  derived 
from  nouns,  and  relate  chiefly  to  external  form  and  character ; 
as,  dy&qdov,  in  herds  ;  fioTQvSov,  resembling  grapes. 

Note.  If  derived  from  verbal  adjectives,  they  agree  in  signification 
with  those  in  dt]v ;  as,  avayavdov,  openly. 

6.  Adverbs  denoting  certain  relations  of  place,  are  formed  by 
the  addition  of  certain  syllables  to  the  word&<from  which  they 
are  derived ;  viz.  In  a  place  is  denoted  by  the  terminations  ih, 
GI,  ov,  ?/,  01,  %ov,  and  %q ;  from  a  place,  by  ftw  or  &e ;  and  to  a 
place,  by  Se,  GS,  and  £*£. 

325. — Exc.  Adverbs  of  place,  .derived  from  prepositions,  ex- 
press the  relations  of  in  a  place  and"  to  a  place  by  the  termina- 
tion co ;  thus, 

In  a  place.          To  a  place.  From  a  place. 

&po,  above,     avw,  upwards.        avco&£v,from  above     (from  dvd). 
),  below.  XCCTCO,  downwards,  xdroa&ev,  from  below  (  "  xard). 


326.— §121.  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  compared  by  rsQog  and 
rcwog,  are  compared  by  changing  og  of  these  terminations  into 
co£;  as, 

Goqxng  GocpmTSQwg  Goyardrcog  from  Gocpog 

2.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives,  compared  by  itov  and 


190  INSEPARABLE  ADVERBIAL   PARTICLES.       §  122. 


g,  commonly  take  the  neuter  singular  of  the  comparative, 
and  the  neuter  plural  of  the  superlative  for  their  comparative  and 
superlative  ;  thus, 

at6%()(*)g  ai6%tov  atf(>%i6Ta  from 


Note  1.     This  mode  of  comparison  is  also  used,  though  more  rarely, 
for  those  derived  from  adjectives  compared  by  rtyos  and  TOCTOC;  ;  as, 


Note  2.  The  accusative  neuter  of  adjectives,  both  singular  and  plu- 
ral, is  sometimes  used  adverbially  in  all  the  degrees.  To  the  superla- 
tive degree,  the  article  is  frequently  prefixed  ;  as,  TO  nklatov  (sup. 
xccrd). 

3.  Adverbs  in  co,  formed  from  prepositions,  are  compared  by 
adding  TZQW  and  raroo  ;  as,  arm,  arwrfQW,  cwaraTtt).  So  also 
prepositions  in  the  sense  of  adverbs  ;  as,  ano, 


Note.     Some  other  adverbs  imitate  this  mode  of  comparison;  as, 
i''ft  luifyo),  Eyyvrdro);  yet  as  often  otherwise;  thus,  comparative 
,  and  syywv,  superlative 


§  122.  INSEPARABLE  A-DVERBIAL  PARTICLES. 

327. — Certain  particles,  never  used  by  themselves,  but  pre- 
fixed to  words   by  composition,  affect   the  signification  of  the 
«words  with  which  they  are  compounded,  as  follows  : 

1.  The  particle  a,   (which  becomes  civ  before  a  vowel)  has 
three  different  significations  : 

1st.  It  marks  privation  (from  avev,  without)  ;   as,  av 

without  water. 
2d.  It  denotes  increase  (from  ayav,  much)  ;  as,  a^v 

much  wooded. 
3d.  It  denotes  union  (from  apa,  together) ;  as,  ako%og,  a 

consort. 

2.  JJQt,  ZQI,  fiov,  @QT,  dd,  fee,  Ace,  7.1,  and  sometimes  vi]  and  vi9 
increase  the  signification  ;  as,  dfaog,  manifest ;  dgidqlog,  very 
manifest.  &c. 

3.  Ni]  and  vs  generally  express  privation  or  negation;  as, 
^/?T|0£,  an  infant,  from  vi\  and  enoo,  I  speak  ;  but 

Exc.  Ni]  sometimes  increases  the  signification ;  as,  vfiyvrog, 
that  flows  in  a  full  stream,  from  w]  and  %vco. 

4.  /Jvg  expresses  difficulty,  trouble,  or  misfortune ;  as,  tiva- 
ffi,  malevolent  ;  dvowftsco,  I  am  unhappy. 


§  124.  PREPOSITIONS.  191 

Note.  The  contrary  of  &'<,-  is  iv  (which  is  also  found  by  itself).  It 
signifies  well  or  with  facility ;  as,  cu/tew/?,  benevolent;  urm/lia,  I  am 
happy. 


§123.  THE  PREPOSITIONS. 

328.  —  A  PREPOSITION  is  a  word  which  shows 
the  relation  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  following 
.  it,  and  ^ome  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

1.  The  primary  use  of  prepositions  seems  to  have  been,  to  in- 
dicate the  relation  of  one  thing  to  another  in  respect  of  PLACE. 
From  this,  by  a  natural  and   easy  analogy,  they  are  used  to  ex- 
press similar  relations  in  respect  of  TIME. 

2.  Prom  their  primary  and  more  common  use,  to  express 
certain  relations  of  place  and  time,  they  are  also  used  by  analogy 
and  figure,  to  express  various  other  connections  and  relations 
among  objects,  in  all  of  which,  however,  the  primary  and  original 
use  of  the  word  may  easily  be  traced. 

3.  All  prepositions  ending  with  a  vowel,  except  dpepi,  TIEQI, 
and  TZQO,  reject  the  final  vowel  when  compounded  with,  or  stand- 
ing before,  a  word  beginning  with  a  vewel  ;  dpcpi  generally  re- 
tains f,  but  there  are  many  exceptions.     It  is  always  rejected  be- 
fore the  augment  e.     UQO  before  s  sometimes  combines  with  it 
by  contraction  ;  thus,  TIQO  sgyov  becomes  TTQOVQ^OV.  222,  Obs.  2. 

4.  There  are  eighteen  prepositions,  properly  so  called,  in  the 
Greek  language  ;  of  these 

Four  govern  the  Genitive  only,  viz.  }ivti,  dno,  Ix  or  *'£,  TIQO. 

Two  govern  the  Dative  only,  *Ev,  GVV. 

Two  govern  the  Accusative  only,      Elg  or  eg,  and  dvd. 

I      Four  govern  the  Gen.  and  Ace.        /fid,  xatd,  perd,  VTIS'Q. 
Six  govern  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  &  Ace.  .Jfytqp/,    Tzegi,    ini,    nagd, 
TToog,  and  VTIO. 
-  — 

329.—  §  124.  ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 
1.  Jfyiqp/,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 


PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  round,  round  about,  on  both  sides. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE;  round,  round  about  ;  at  the  same  time  proceed- 
ing or  originating  from  ;  of  or  concerning,  upon,  in  addition  to,  for  the 
te&e  of,  for  the  love  of. 


192  PREPOSITIONS.  §  124. 

"Wrra  THE  DATIVE  ;  round,  with  the  idea  of  rest  and  continuance  ;  of 
or  concerning,  among,  after  or  near,  upon,  for,  i.  e.  in  defence  of;  for,  i.  e. 
on  account  of;  with. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE;  round,  with  the  idea  of  tendency  or  approxi- 
mation to  ;  near,  of,  concerning,  or  belonging  to.  See  also  §  134,  13. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  about,  round  about. 


2.  J4voL>  the  Accusative.     In  poetry,  sometimes  the  Dative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  motion  upwards,  from  below  to  above,  op- 
posed to  xotra. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE;  over,  up  along,  through,  during,  among,  with, 
\n  ;  in  computation,  up  ;  viz.  from  a  point  below. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  upon,  on,  in,  with  the  idea  of  elevation  and  rest. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  motion  upioards,  repetition,  increase,  back  again. 

3.  Jfw,  the  Genitive. 

PRIMARY  MEANING  ;  in  front  of,  in  a  state  of  rest  ;  set  over  against, 
L  e.  by  way  of  exchange,  comparison,  equivalence,  or  ^reference.  Hence, 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  for,  i.  e.  equivalent  ;  before,  in  preference  ;  in- 
stead of  ,  against,  equal  to,  for,  in  consideration  of;  upon. 

IN  COMPOSITION;  equality,  substitution,  reciprocity,  comparison,  op- 
position. 

4.  JinQy  the  Genitive. 


PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  removal  from,  viz.  from  contact  with;  oppo- 

site Of  71QQ$. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  from,  on,  after  (from  the  time  of),  against,  by 
means  of,  with,  upon,  of,  i.  e.  proceeding  from  ;  on  account  of,  for,  of, 
i.  e.  belonging  to;  e.  g.  ot  ano,  those  belonging  to,  viz.  the  Council,  Ple- 
beians, Stoics,  &c. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  departure,  separation,  negation,  privation,  augmen- 
tation. 

5.  Aid,  the  Genitive  or  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  through,  motion  through. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  1.  place,  through  ;  2.  time,  through,  through- 
out, during  ;  with  regard  to  the  space  or  time  passed  through,  at,  in  ; 
with  numerals,  every;  as,  did  nivxt,  every  five  ;  3.  cause,  by  means  of, 
with,  viz.  as  an  instrument. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  by,  by  means  of,  during  ;  as  the  end,  occasion, 
or  cause  ;  for,  on  account  of,  e.  g.  navta  di>'  avrov  eyivtto,  all  things  were 
made  BY  him  ;  navta.  di?  avrov  tyivttn,  all  things  were  made  FOR  him. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  separation,  division,  arrangement,  passage  through, 
reciprocation,  opposition,  or  competition,  perseverance. 

6.  Elg  or  ig,  the  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  to,  into  ;  motion  from  without  to  within  ;  the 
opposite  of  ex. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE;  to,  into,  toward,  against,  among,  before,  con- 
eerning,  in  respect  of,  in,  till,  until,  for  ;  with  numerals,  about,  up  to. 


§  124.  PREPOSITIONS.  193 

It  forms  distributives;  as,  ti<;  IW,  one  by  one ;  it  is  used  adverbially, 
f  lq  a,7ia£,  once  ;  tiq  diq,  twice, 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  into.  » 

NOTE.  When  tiq  or  eg  stands  before  a  genitive,  an  accusative  is  un- 
derstood. 

7.  3£x  (before  a  vowel  '.££),  the  Genitive. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  from,  out,  out  of,  motion  from  within  to 
without ;  opposite  of  eiq. 

Wrrn  THE  GENITIVE  it  denotes  motion  from,  causation,  change  of  state, 
rendered  of,  i.  e.  made  of;  of,  viz.  the  number  ;  out  of,  by,  with,  accord- 
ing to,  since. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  out  of,  it  denotes  division  or  separation^  pre-emi- 
nence, completion  or  success,  intensity. 

8.  '£*>,  the  Dative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  in,  with  the  idea  of  rest  and  being  con- 
tained within. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  within,  during,  a?nong,  before,  in  the  power  of,  by, 
viz.  by  means  of;  in  the  case  of,  with,  into. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  in  or  among. 

9.  'Eat,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  on  or  upon,  with  motion  or  rest. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  on,  upon,  at,  in,  or  near  ;  during,  through,  under, 
in  the  time  of;  after,  with,  by. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  upon,  i.  e.  close  and  continuing  upon,  in  the  power 
of,  i.  e.  resting  upon ;  on  condition,  during,  besides,  i.  e.  in  addition  to ; 
for,  i.  e.  in  order  to ;  after,  with,  against,  along,  among,  at,  by,  over ; 
viz.  in  authority. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  on  or  upon,  with  the  idea  of  tendency  or  ap- 
proach towards ;  to,  towards,  under,  so  as  to  be  dependent  upon ;  in, 
over,  during,  against ;  viz.  motion  towards  with  hostile  intent. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  addition,  increase,  reciprocity,  succession. 

10.  Kara,  the  Genitive  or  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  direction  from  above  to  below,  down  along 
(parallel);  down  to,  upon,  or  at  (perpendicular);  down  through  (trans- 
verse) ;  opposite  of  avd. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  down  from,  viz.  originating  or  proceeding  down 
from,  directed  down  by ;  along,'  on,  through,  downwards ;  under,  upon, 
at,  as  a  mark ;  before,  respecting,  by,  viz.  in  swearing ;  against,  among. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  down  (not  from,  but)  parallel  to,  down  along, 
or  to  ;  through,  according  to,  in  respect  of;  in,  on,  by,  near  to,  at,  op- 
posite, or  before,  during.  Adverbially,  y.ara  (JLMQQV,  by  degrees. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  down,  opposition,  intensity. 

11.  MfcT(£,  the  Genitive,  Dative  (with  the  Poets),  or  the  Accusa- 
tive. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  with,  together  with,  not  as  a  part  of,  or  one 
with ;  expressing  a  connection  less  close  than  GVV. 

9 


194          .  PREPOSITIONS.  §  124. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE;  with,  together  with,  by  means  of,  viz.  as  con- 
nected with  and  depending  upon  ;  according  to,  and,  i.  e.  in  conjunction 
with,  as  an  agent,  or  object;  with,  i.  e.  against;  with,  i.  e.  for,  on  the  side 
of;  among. 

Wmi  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  after,  i.  e.  following  close  or  near  to,  in  re- 
Bpect  to  space  or  time  ;  next  to,  next  after,  to,  towards,  for,  or  after,  with 
a-  view  'to  bring  ;  between,  in,  among. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  by  the  poets  only,  in,  with,  among. 

IN  COMPOSITION;  participation,  change,  reciprocity. 

12.  IlaQa,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION,  by  the  side  of;  it  denotes  motion  from,  close 
tb,  or  towards  an  object,  according  to  the  case  with  which  it  is  joined. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  from,  i.  e.  from  beside  ;  of,  proceeding  froto  ; 
by,  with,  near,  from  among,  above,  or  in  comparison  with. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE;  at,  with,  near,  among,  with  the  idea  of  continu- 
ance. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE;  to,  beyond,  beside,  towards,  i.  e.  to  the  side  of; 
through  along,  against,  in  comparison  with. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  it  retains  its  general  meaning  ;  also  defect. 

13.  IleQi,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 


PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  round,  round  about,  nearly  the  same  with 
but  in  a  sense  less  close:  a/tyl  means'  on  both  sides;  7tf^l}  on  all 


WITH  THE  GENITIVE;  round,  round  about,  with  the  idea  of  origin 
or  cause ;  about,  i.  e.  of,  or  concerning ;  with,  for,  viz.  in  defence  of ; 
above  or  before,  denoting  pre-eminence  or  superiority. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  round,  round  about,  with  rest  or  continuance ; 
for,  i.  e.  concerning,  on  account  of;  from. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  round,  or  about,  with  tendency  or  approach 
to ;  concerning  or  towards,  about,  i.  e.  near  to,  advancing  towards ;  about, 
i  e.  with  regard  to ;  in,  of,  against. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  round  about,  also  denoting  increase,  abundance. 

14.  ZZjoo,  the  Genitive. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  before,  in  respect  of  place  or  time,  but  with- 
out the  idea  of  opposition  or  comparison  which  belongs  to  dvri. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  before,  in  the  presence  of ;  at  the  command  of, 
through,  denoting  cause  or  origin;  for,  in  defence  of;  for,  for  the  ad- 
vantage of ;  before,  denoting  preference. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  before  ;  with  verbs  of  motion,  forth,  forward. 

15.  IlQog,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 

•PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION;  transition  or  passage,  the  relative  direction 
being  indicated  by  the  case. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  from,  i.  e.  transition  from ;  from,  by,  denoting 
the  agent;  belonging  to  or  the  property  of ;  of,  proceeding  from:  on 
the  side  of:  by,  in  oaths  and  supplications;  before,  to,  so  as  to  be  pro- 
tected by. 


§  124.  PREPOSITIONS.  195 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  close  to,  near,  and  continuing  ;  besides,  in  addition 
to,  before,  occupied  or  busy  with. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  to  or  towards,  against,  according  to,  in  conse- 
quence of,  on  account  of,  with,  in  comparison  of. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  motion  to,  addition,  against,  close  to. 

16.  2vv,  the  Dative. 


PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  with,  closely  connected  with  another,  so  as 
in  some  sense  to  form  one  wilh  it  ;  see  /mrd. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  with,  together  with,  according  to,  besides,  with  the 
assistance  of,  at,  during,  to,  on  the  side  of. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  concurrence  in  action,  association,  combination,  col- 
lection-, completion  01*  fulfilment,  collision,  intensity. 

17.  'TTIS'QJ  the  Genitive  or  Accusative. 


PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  over  or  above,  viz.  in  respect  of  place,  and 
hence  figuratively,  over,  in  respect  of  power,  authority,  protection. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE  ;  above,  in  a  state  of  rest  ;  over,  in  a  state  of  mo- 
tion ;  for,  i.  e.  in  defence  of  ;  for,  viz.  in  the  place  of  ;  for,  on  account 
of;  b  fa  for  the  sake  of,  of  ^concerning,  in  order  to. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  "  over  beyond,  above  or  beyond,  above,  i.  e.  more 
than  ;  against. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  it  retains  its  primary  signification,  also  sometimes 
it  augments. 

18.  'Tiro,  the  Genitive,  Dative  or  Accusative. 

PRIMARY  SIGNIFICATION  ;  under,  modified  by  its  case. 

WITH  THE  GENITIVE;  place:  from  below,  from  under,  out  of;  fig. 
under,  generally  with  the  idea  of  protection,  subjection,  or  the  object  of 
influence  proceeding  from  ;  also,  by,  with,  i.  e.  under  the  direction  of; 
by  means  of,'  for,  i.  e.  under  the  influence  of. 

WITH  THE  DATIVE  ;  simply  under,  completely  under  and  continuing  ; 
by. 

WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  ;  under,  viz.  moving  and  proceeding  under  or 
coming  up  to  the  under  part  of  a  thing  ;  to,  behind,  about,  on  the  eve  of. 

IN  COMPOSITION  ;  it  retains  its  primary  signification.  Sometimes  it 
denotes  diminution,  privacy,  beginning. 

330.  -  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  preposition,  as  its  name  imports,  usually  stands  before  the 
word  which  it  governs.     When  it  comes  after  it,  as  it  sometimes  does, 
this  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  the  accent  from  the  last  syllable  to 
the  first. 

2.  In  composition,  with  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel,  and  gen- 
erally when  standing  before  such  a  word,  the  final  vowel  of  the  prepo- 
sition is  dropped,  and,  if  the  next  preceding  letter  be  a  consonant,  it  is 
subject  to  the  changes  required  by  the  laws  of  euphony;  thus,  0,710 
tai'Tov  must  be  written  ay'  tavtov.     Iltoi,  however,  never  drops  its 
final  vowel,  and  lx  never  changes  its  final  letter  except  before  a  vowel, 
when  it  is  changed  into  e£. 


196  CONJUNCTIONS.  §  125. 

3.  The  preposition  alone,  with  the  accent  thrown  back  to  the  first 
syllable,  is  sometimes  used  for  certain  compounds,  of  which  it  forms  a 
part;  thus,  tvi,  is  used  for  eVttrrt,  it  is  lawful;  nt^i,  for  TifqltGri,,  it  is 
superfluous  ;  ava  for  avcurrtj&ir,  arise  ;  naQa  for  TtdytdTt,,  he  is  present. 


§125.  THE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

331. — A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  word  which  con- 
nects words  or  sentences. 

332. — Conjunctions,  according  to  their  different  meanings, 
are  divided  into  different  classes,  of  which,  the  following  may  be 
noticed;  viz. 

1.  Connective  ;  as,  xai,  re,  and  ;  in  poetry,  yds,  ide,  ?][*&>,  and  ; 

xea  de',  also,  &c. 

2.  Disjunctive  ;  as,  ?/,  'fooi ;  in  poetry,  jj$ ;  and  sometimes  fffw*i 

rinov,  or. 

3.  Concessive;  as,  xav,  xataeQ,  si  xai,  although. 

4.  Adversative  ;  as,  akha,  de,  drag,  but.;  ye,  at  least ;  fjie'v,  od.- 

hd  fjiev,  but,  truly,  indeed  ;  fierroi,  yet,  &c. 

5.  Causal, . . .  which  assign  a  reason  for  ^something  previously 

said;  as,  yd^,for;  wa,  on,  onca?,  o(pQa,  that ;  cog, 
wars,  that,  so  that ;  ovvsxa  (in  poetry),  because ; 
EiTiEQ,  since  indeed  ;  last,  since,  after  that. 

6.  Conclusive,  or  such  as  are  used  in  drawing  a  conclusion,  or 

inference  from  something  previously  said;  as, 
aga,  ovv,  therefore ;  816,  dioTtSQ,  ivherefore ;  dij, 
then,  truly ;  roivvv,  vv  or  vvv,  therefore  ;  voiya- 
QOVV  (emphatic),  therefore  •  omovv,  not  there- 
fore. 

7.  Conditional ;  as,  si,  av,  sdv,  %v,  in  poetry,  xs  or  xsV,  al,  aixs, 

if  ;  8i7T£Q,  if  indeed. 

8.  Expletive  ;  as,  y&,  TTSQ,  rot,  Qa,  &&,  vv,  nov,  n&,  &Q,  &c. 

ADVERBIAL    AND    CONJUNCTIVE    PARTICLES. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  signification  and  use  of  certain 
adverbial  and  conjunctive  particles,  will  be  useful  for  reference. 
For  more  ample  information  on  this  subject,  the  advanced  stu- 
dent is  referred  to  the  work  of  Hoogeveen  on  the  Greek  Par- 
ticles, an  abridged  translation  of  which  has  been  published  by 
the  Rev.  John  Seager,  B.  A. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  197 


§125. 


333. 

1.  L4AAc*  is  adversative,  and  commonly  answers  to  the  English  but. 
It  is  sometimes  used  elliptically,  to  indicate  confidence  or  readiness,  and 
may  be  rendered  'well,  then;'  therefore.     Thus,  ctAA'  «•  i<j&t>,  em  sift 
TOV&*  OVTOK;,  Well,  then,  know  that  this  will  be  so,  i.  e.  ovx  6xr/}<7«,  ctAA', 
<fec.  I  will  not  be  unwilling,  but,  on  the  contrary,  know  that  this  will  be  so. 

2.  './-/AAcc  ydo.     Thus  combined  ydy  introduces  a  reason  for  the  op- 
position expressed  by  ceAAa;  as,  ctAAct  yag  Koiovta  fovvao),  navffo)  rovq 
TTaQfCTToyraq  Adyoi's,  Bur  I  will  stop  the  present  discourse,  FOR  I  see  Creon 
coming.     Sometimes,  however,  the  reference  is  more  latent,  and  a  clause 
is  to  be  supplied  from  w.hat  precedes ;  thus,  Plato,  aAAct  yag  iv  adov 
di/.rtv  do')ffOjutv,  where  there  must  be  supplied  from  the  preceding 'sen- 
tence, oi'x  dty/u,i,ot>  aTtaU.d^Ofjitv,  BUT  we  shall  not  escape  unpunished,  FOR 
we  shall  render  satisfaction  in  Hades.     Sometimes  the  reference  is  to  a 
succeeding  clause,  and  sometimes  to  some  general  remark  which  the 
connection  and  sense  of  the  passage  will  readily  suggest,  such  as,  But 
this  is  not  surprising,  for  ;  But  this  is  not  impossible,  for  ;  <fec. 

3.  L4AAa  yt  restricts  with  emphasis  that  which  is  general  to  some- 
thing more  special ;  as,  ccAA'  ovx  civ  dyQoixo)q  yt,  olo/tcu,  AotJo^T/trf uuv. 
BUT  AT  LEAST  they  would  not,  I  think,  revile  us  in  a  rude  manner. 

4.  L4AA'  ovv  ye.     When  these  particles  are  combined,  they  usually 
intimate  that  along  with  the  opposition  expressed  by  dAAa,  a  conse- 
quence of  what  has  preceded  is  also  expressed ;  thus,  dAA'  ovv  iovtov 
ye  tbv  yoovov  jjrrov  a^&Jg  cero/joM-.     YET  I  will  FOR  THIS  REASON  now  AT 
LEAST  be  less  disagreeable. 

5.  L^AAct  joined  with  ovde  strengthens  the  negative ;  as,  aAA'  owW 
Ttft^dffotiai,,  Nay,  I  will  not  even  try.     In  such  sentences  ov  /uovov  ov  may 
be  supplied,  equivalent  to,  /  will  not  only  not  do  it,  BUT  /  will  not  even 
try. 

6.  L^AAa  is  strengthened  by  adding  rol ;  as,  aAA'  %${>  rot>,  yv  avioq 
iraqy,  Why,  that  is  a  pleasant  thing  enough,  if,  <fec. 

334.— UN  (Poet.  KE  or  KEN). 

vAv  (Poetice  xt  or  *tv)  according  to  Professor  Dunbar,  is  derived  from 
ao),  the  same  as  Ida),  to  give,  grant,  or  allow  ;  and  that  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  particle  thus  derived  is  granted  or  allowed,  which  can  be 
readily  traced  in  all  the  variety  of  expression  in  which  it  is  employed. 
This  particle  is  used — 

1.  In  the  sense  of  leer,  if,  of  which,  in  this  sense,  it  is  probably  only 
an  abbreviated  form.     Thus  used,  it  expresses  a  condition,  and  may  be- 
gin a  sentence ;  as,  civ  &fbq  -d-ity  if  (granted)  God  will.     In  all  its  other 
applications  civ  can  stand  onlv  after  other  words  in  its  clause. 

2.  It  is  used  with  indefinites,  adding  to  them  the  force  of  the  Latir 
-cunque,  -soever  ;  as,  O'OTK;  av,  whoever,  or  whosoever. 

3.  It  is 'used  most  generally  to  limit  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs 
and  partly  or  entirely  takes  from  that  verb  its  direct  affirmative  power, 

With  the  INDICATIVE  imperfect,  pluperfect,  and  aorists,  it  is  rendered 
by  should,  would;  should  have,  would  have,  &c.  §  170,  4,  and  Obs.  1 ; 
and  also  to  express  ability,  and  rendered  by  could  or  could  have.  It  ia 
sometimes  joined  to  the  future,  and  seems  to  soften  the  decisiveness  of 


198  CONJUNCTIONS.  §  125. 

the  statement  ;  as,  6  de  x  f  v  xt/okowfTait  ov  xfv  tw/uai,,  and  he  will  PER- 
HAPS be  angry  to  whom  I  go.  It  is  but  very  seldom  found  with  the  in- 
dicative present  ;  a  few  instances,  however,  have  been  produced  from 
Aristophanes  and  Plutus. 

With  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  it  is  never  joined,  unless  accompanied  with  cer- 
tain other  words,  such  as  o?,-b'(ro£>  oar^,  oTtoreooq,  OV,OTIOV,  iva,  <fcc. 
&c.  except  when  used  in  the  sense  of  lav  as  above,  384-1. 

It  is  used  with  the  OPTATIVE  of  all  the  tenses  except  the  future,  as  in 
§  172,  06s.  6,  H.  2d,  3d,  4th,  5th,  6th. 

With  the  INFINITIVE  and  PARTICIPLES  it  gives  a  contingent  significa- 
tion (commonly  in  the  future),  which  may  be  resolved  by  changing  the 
verb  or  participle  into  the  optative  with  civ  ;  as,  ojloviau  ava^d/tada!, 
civ,  they  think  that  they  could  retrieve  themselves  ;  rcUAcc  (FIWTZW,  716).%  civ 
t/o)v  tiTtiTv,  I  omit  the  rest,  THOUGH  I  HAVE  much  to  say. 

4.  It  is  used  in  positive  statements  with  different  moods,  to  give  an 
expression  of  hesitation  and  modesty  to  the  assertion  ;  as,  we;  av  /JLOV 
#6x7],  as  it  s'eems  (WOULD  SEEM)  to  me  ;  oi»x  av  olda,  I  (SHOULD)  HARDLY 
know.  ^ 

5.  *'Av  is  frequently  repeated,  either  on  account  of  its  standing  at  a 
great  distance  from  the  verb,  or,  to  give  emphasis  to  the  condition  sug- 
gested  by  it;    atdq  av  ---  Afyoti**   av,    having   stationed  myself 
—  -.  --  /  would  say  ;  TIMS  <5e  y  civ  xaAwcj  Aeyot?  civ  ;  how  CAN  you,  how 
CAN  you  say,  &Q.  ? 

6.  It  is  sometimes  used,  to  intimate  that  the  verb  in  the  preceding 
clause  is  to  be  repeated;  as,  d  ty  TO)  ffoyo'rtfaoc;  yalyv  tivav,  TOVTW  av 
(sc.  yalyv  dvav  aoq>o')Tf()oq),  if  I  thought  to  be  more  wise  in  any  thing,  TT 

WOULD  BE  IN  THIS. 


1.  y[Aoa,  denoting  inference  or  conclusion,  always  stands  after  some 
word  in  its  clause  ;  its  proper  signification  is  "of  course,"  "in  the  na- 
ture of  things,"  and  is  commonly  rendered  therefore,  consequently  ;  it  is 
used  in  the  successive  steps  of  a  train  of  reasoning  ;  as,   "  If  there  are 
altars  there  are  also  gods;"  oJUa/tfy*  tio~i  fio)fiol'  dalv  aoa  v.ai  &foi, 
But  there  certainly  are  altars  ;  THEREFORE  there  are  gods  too.     It  is  used 
in  making  a  transition  to  what  follows  in  the  order  of  time  or  events,  or 
in  the  progress  of  thought.     With  d  or  lav  it  expresses  conjecture;  as, 
ft  ci()a  dvvovtav,  if  INDEED  (i.  e.  in  the  course  of  things]  they  can.     Some- 
times it  serves  for  an  emphatic  asseveration  as  if  founded  on  an  infer- 
ence. 

2.  The  adverb  dga  is  different  from  this,  and  is  always  placed  first 
in  a  clause  or  sentence.     Itjs  merely  an  interrogative  particle  like  the 
Latin  num  or  utrum  ;  as,  doa  y.ara^^ov  o  /?oi';Ao/*at  ).iyiw  ;  Is,  then, 
what  I  wish  to  say  evident  ?     When  a  negative  answer  is  expected  it 
has  generally  the  particle  j«J_  annexed.     The  Latin  nonne  is  expressed 
by  ay'  ov,  and  sometimes  by  ay  a  alone. 

336.—  FA'P. 

1.  rdg,for,  always  follows  other  words  like  the  Latin  cnim,  which 
it  resembles  in  signification,  and  for  which  at  the  beginning  of  a  sen- 
tence xal  ydo,  like  the  Latin  etenim,  is  often  used.  Its  use  is  to  assign 
a  reason  for  what  is  said.  Very  often,  however,  that  of  which  it  assigns 


§  125.  CONJUNCTIONS.  199 

the  cause  is  merely  implied  or  hinted  at,  and  must  be  supplied,  to  show 
the  force  of  ydo.  It  will  frequently  be  found  to  refer  to  such  expres- 
sions understood;  as,  Yes.  No,  no  wonder,  I  believe,  I  cannot,  <fec.,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  answer  so  common  in  Plato,  eari*  ydg  ,ovto),  Yes,  or 
certainly,  FOR  so  it  is.  Thus,  Homer,  Od.  10.  501,  5/2  Kioxy,  ti^  ydo 
raiiTfjv  odov  tWfftovtiHTf*',  Oh  Circe,  (I  cannot  go  thither,)  FOE  who  wia 
guide  me  on  this  way  ?  FTOBI  this  interrogative  use  it  came  sometimes 
to  be  used,  merely  to  strengthen  a  question,  like  the  Latin  nam  in  quis- 
nam. 

2.  In  such  expressions  as  y.al  yd$,  aAAa  ydo,  the  former  particle  in- 
dicates the  omission  of  something  of  which  ydo  assigns  a  cause  ;  thus, 
vial  ydg  strictly  translated  means,  and  (no  wonder,)  for;  and  (it  is  Na- 
tural,) for ;  and  the  like.  For  the  rendering  of  dUd  ydo,  see  cU/la, 
333-2. 

337.— re. 

jfi£  (enclitic)  is  a  particle  of  limitation,  and  signifies  at  least,  certainly, 
however,  indeed,  and  is  used  to  single  out  an  individual  object  from  a 
number ;  as,  d  fin  oJ.ov  fiegoq  yf,  if  not  the  whole  AT  LEAST  a  part ;  eyo) 
yt,  I  indeed,  I  at  least.  In  most  combinations  it  can  be  rendered  into 
English  only  by  giving  greater  emphasis  to  the  word  with  which  it  is 
connected 

338.—  J&. 

The  particle  <Je,  but,  is  used  both  to  distinguish  and  oppose,  and 
always  stands  after  one  or  more  words  in  a  clause.  It  often  serves, 
however,  merely  to  mark  transition  from  one  proposition  to  another ; 
rind,  in  general,  every  proposition  which  has  no  other  conjunction  at 
its  commencement,  takes  this  di,  whether  really  opposed  to  the  prece- 
ding or  not.  When  so  used,  it  may  be  rendered  by  and,  for,  or  any 
other  word  which  the  nature  of  the  connection  may  require ;  or  it  may 
often  remain  untranslated.  Its  principal  use,  however,  is  in  connection 
with  JAW,  which  see. 

339.— Alt. 

4q,  a  particle  of  affirmation,  signifies  truly,  really,  without  doubt. 
It  is  used  in  affirmative  answers ;  as,  ffijlov  dij,  it  is  certainly  manifest. 
It  is  used  ironically,  especially  after  ox? ;  and  after  relative  and  compar- 
ative words  it  is  usually  emphatical.  With  Ttov  joined  to  it  (#777101'),  it 
signifies  certainly,  viz.,  and  sometimes,  perhaps.  It  differs  from  pr}v  and 
yi,  also  affirmative  words,  in  this,  that  drj  strongly  asserts  a  thing  as 
already  established :  pqv  goes  on  to  press  the  assertion  without  relax- 
ing as  to  what  has  preceded ;  while  yi  asserts  with  limitation,  yielding 
as  to  the  past,  or  other  things,  but  insisting  upon  this. 

2.  Ar],  from  ?J(ty,  as  an  adverb,  signifies  now  ;  joined  with  vvv,  this 
very  moment ;  as,  vvv  rify  juazijrtov,  we  must  fight  this  very  moment. 
With  verbs  in  the  preterite,  it  denotes  just  now.  As  a  conjunction,  it  is 
used,  1.  In  exhorting ;  as,  Alye  ty,  come  now,  read ;  2.  In  questions,  it 
indicates  the  earnestness  of  the  speaker,  and  his  desire  of  an  immediate 
answer;  as,  td  Ttota  dy  tavTa;  what  now  are  these?  3.  In  expressing 
admiration  when  joined  with  note ;  as,  tl  dyTtore  TOVIWV,  why  now 


'200  CONJUNCTIONS.  §  125. 

^  '•     * 

these  ;  4.  In  commencing  a  subject ;  as,  V2&  $q  ffxoTtwptv  auto,  now  let 
us  consider  it  in  this  way  ;  5.  In  marking  the  successive  stages  of  thought 
as  they  rise  one  above  another.  In  each  of  these,  it  signifies  now  truly, 
until  at  the  last  it  signifies  finally. 

340.— KA1'  and  Ttf. 

Kal  and  it  have  the  same  significations*  in  reference  to  each  other 
as  the  Latin  et  and  que.  Both  connect  single  ideas,  and  the  entire  parts 
of  a  sentence.  "With  the  older  poets,  re  is  more  common  than  in  the 
Attic  prose  writers,  and  it  is  commonly  put  not  merely  once  between 
the  connected  parts,  but  joined  to  each  of  them;  as,  Tiarr^  avSquv  rt 
•d-twv  tf,  the  father  of  both  gods  and  men.  "V^hen  re  precedes  xca  in  sep- 
arate clauses,  the  former  signifies  not  only  ;  the  latter,  but  also  ;  it  y.al, 
and  also,  connect  more  closely  than  simple  xa/;  xcet — y.al,  both — and; 
as  well — as;  aAAax?  T£  xca,  especially,  i.  e.  (both  in  other  respects)  and 
also,  particularly  also. 

341.— MA'  and  NH', 

Ma  and  vy  are  particles  of  obtestation,  and  always  govern  the  ac- 
cusative of  the  object;  vij  is  always  affirmative;  pa,  when  alone,  is 
negative,  but  is  nevertheless  attached  both  to  affirmative  and  negative 
obtestations ;  as,  val  pa  4la}  and  ov  pa  Ala. 

342.— MtfN  and  A£. 

Miv  and  <5s  are  two  particles  referring  to  each  other  ;  they  are  used 
to  distinguish,  and  at  the  same  time  to  connect,  the  different  clauses  of 
a  sentence  together.  Thus  used,  piv  is  generally  placed  in  the  first 
clause  of  a  sentence,  and  $i  in  each  of  the  succeeding  ones.  Hence, 
whenever  we  find  piv  in  the  first  member  of  a  sentence,  the  thought 
necessarily  turns  to  an  opposite  member  with  Si.  Sometimes,  however, 
after  piv  the  expected  di  does  not  actually  follow ;  i.  e.  when  the  op- 
position is  so  clear  that  Si  is  not  necessary  to  point  it  out,  or  when 
some  other  word,  such  as  aUd,  atay,  &c.,  supplies  its  place.  In  like 
manner  dt  is  often  used  without  being  preceded  by  piv,  referring  to 
something  conceived  in  the  mind  but  not  expressed ;  or,  without  such 
reference,  it  is  used,  simply  to  connect  the  parts  of  a  sentence  less 
closely  than  by  piv— Si,  or  other  conjunctions.  In  opposition  they  are 
commonly  rendered  indeed — but.  See  Si. 

The  distributive  use  of  piv  and  Si  with  the  article,  relative  pronoun, 
&c.  will  be  noticed  §§  133,  3,  &  134,  19. 

343..— of  AT  and  O^KOTN. 

1.  Ovv,  wherefore,  is  used,  1.  In  drawing  an  ultimate  conclusion 
in  the  view  of  all  that  has  been  said  before ;  in  this  it  differs  from  aga, 
which  is  used  in  successive  steps  in  the  process  of  reasoning.  2.  It  com- 
mences a  chapter  or  paragraph,  with  some  reference  to  what  has  pre- 
ceded. 3.  It  continues  or  resumes  a  subject,  after  a  digression.  4.  It 
introduces  a  transition  to  some  new  subject;  and  lastly,  it  has  an  affirm 
ative  force,  particularly  in  replies ;  as,  yiyvvzai  ovv  ovrojq,  it  is  certainly 
so ;  hence  the  compounds, 


§  125.  CONJUNCTIONS.  201 

2.  Ovxovv  and  (JLUW,  for  ^j]  ovv.  The  former  is  properly  a  negative 
inference  ;  as,  "it  is  not  therefore  ;  "  though  sometimes  it  loses  its  nega- 
tive character,  and  denotes  "therefore;"  /noyv  is  used  interrogatively, 
"is  it  not  therefore  ?" 

344.—  J7EP. 

IlfQ  (enclitic)  is  nearly  allied  to  yi,  and  is  used  to  express  the  idea 
with  more  emphasis  than  it  would  have  without  it.  This  is  indicated 
in  English  merely  by  a  greater  emphasis  of  the  word,  or  by  the  words 
very,  ever,  and  the  like.  Joined  with  a  participle,  it  is  commonly  ren- 
dered although,  how  much  so  ever  ;  with  a  relative,  it  adds  the  force  of 
the  Latin  cunque,  or  the  English  ever  ;  thus,  anfQ,  qucecunque,  whatever, 
Q,  quicunque,  whoever,  <fcc.  ;  as,  am  Q  Myei,,  whatever  he  does  say  ; 
zwv,  excellent  though  thou  art  ;  y7it()  ti%fv,just  as  he  was. 

^:  345.—  HOT. 

1.  IIou  is  a  particle  interrogative,  of  place,  and  signifies  1.  where? 
2.  whither  ?    As  an  enclitic  it  signifies  motion  to  a  place  ;  as,  oTm'dw 
nov,  I  am  hastening  to  some  place,  somewhither,  and  also  indicates  place 
indefinitely,  anywhere;  hence  it  is  joined  with  adverbs  of  place;  as,  i%tZ 
Si  nov,  somewhere  there-abouts. 

2.  From  the  indefiniteness  of  its  signification  arises  its  conjectural 
use,  to  express  a  thing  with  a  degree  of  uncertainty  and  caution,  ex- 
pressed in  English  by  probably,  perhaps,  if  I  mistake  not,  <fcc.,  and  hence 
is  used  in  eliciting  and  asking  consent  ;  as,  Gvvot,GQ-d  nov  %ai  avrbq  ott,, 
&G.    You  yourself,  as  well  as  I,  know,  if  I  mistake  not,  or  doubtless,  that, 
<fce.,  where  an  affirmative  reply  is  evidently  expected.     Hence  also  its 
use  as  a  diminutive,  to  qualify  what  might  otherwise  seem  too  positis'e 
or  peremptory.     Thus  used  it  may  be  rendered  by  pretty  nearly,  in  my 
opinion,  perhaps,  <fcc.     This  particle,  though  often  used,  is  never  redun 
dant;  ov  (5>/  nov3  for  example,  is,  no  indeed,  as  I  think  ;  not  truly,  in  my 
opinion. 

346.—  TI&Z. 

1.  This  particle  with  the  circumflex  is  interrogative  and  signifies 
how  ?  as,  TTOK,'  ov%  a|to?  icfrl  towrov  ;  how  can  he  but  be  worthy  of  this  ? 
joined  with  ydo  they  constitute  an  emphatic  negative,  Ttwq  yag  Tio^ffo)  ; 
for  how  shall  I  do  it  ?  i.  e.  /  will  not  do  it  at  all.     So  also  y.al  TTW? 
fft,o)7to);  I  cannot  be  silent  ;  literally,  and  how  am  I  to  be  silent? 

2.  As  an  enclitic  TTCO?  signifies  some  how,  in  some  degree,  &c.  as,  a 
TTOJ?,  in  some  other  way  ;  wde  TTOJ?,  somehow  thus  ;  &Q. 


This  particle  is  extensively  employed,  and  with  a  great  variety  of 
usage;  as,  1.  It  is  used  for  «W,  to  denote  a  purpose;  as,  ox;  dfi£o)/ttv, 
in  order  that  we  may  shew  ;  2.  for  ort  with  the  meaning  of  that  ;  as, 
Myovttq  oxj  iy.twoc,  &c.,  saying  that  he,  &c.  ;  3.  More  commonly  it  signi 
fies  as,  expressing  similitude;  as,  wq  dovloq,  as  a  slave;  "He  taught 
them  —  ojq  l£ovffiav  fyow,  as  one  having  authority."  4.  With  the  acute 
accent,  and  not  before  an  enclitic,  nor  after  a  word  on  which  it  depends 

9* 


202  CONJUNCTIONS.  '   §  125. 

it  has  the  sense  of  O<"TOJ<?,  thus  ;  as,  wq  dnwv,  having  spoken  thus.  5.  In 
exclamations  it  has  the  sense  of  how  ;  as,  ok;  o~f  /uaxaqitoiutv,  how  happy 
we  deem  you  !  hence  its  use  with  the  optative  in  the  sense  of  the  Latin 
utinam  ;  as,  wq  /*'  oye  A*  l/J5xroj^>  xrt  Ivca  :  Would  that  Hector  had  slain 
me  !  literally,  how  Hector  ought  to  have  slnin  me  !  6.  B.efore  superlative 
adjectives  and  adverbs,  like  <m,  it  strengthens  the  meaning  ;  as,  wq  rd- 
n<rra,  as  quickly  as  possible.  Allied  to  this,  is  its  power  as  a  strength- 
ening particle,  with  the  positive  degree,  in  such  expressions  ;  as,  wq 
aty&wq,  truly,  really.  7.  It  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  proposi- 
tions with  the  infinitive  ;  as,  wq  tlntlv,  so  to  speak  ;  wq  dy.dcrai,,  as  far 
as  one  may  conjecture  ;  and  also  in  the  same  sense  it  is  used  before 
whole  clauses  and  propositions  ;  as,  wq  inl  to  Ttokv,  for  the  most  part  ; 
o>q  TtQoq  ib  f*,Byt&oq  tyq  TToA*  o)q,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  city.  8. 
As  a  particle  of  time,  it  signifies  when,  sometimes  while  ;  as,  ojg  Je  rjl&t, 
but  when  he  came.  9.  "With  numerals  it  signifies  about  ;  as,  ox;  ryla  ij 
T£TT«(>a  ora&ct,  about  three  or  four  stadia.  10.  With  particles  in  the 
genitive  absolute,  and  also  in  the  dative  or  accusative,  it  is  rendered  as, 
since,  because,  inasmuch  as,  as  if;  and  the  participle  is  then  rendered  by 
the  indicative  ;  as,  wq  tavrqq  tyq  /otyaq  e/iiQo)tdT)]q  ovcrqq,  because  this 
place  was  the  most  secure.  11.  It  is  often  put  by  the  Attics  for  the  pre- 
position €tg,  Ttqoq,  or  sTtl  ;  as,  wq  i^i,  towards  me  ;  wq  rbv  fiacrrita,  to 
the  king. 


For  the  negative  particles  ov  and  j«y,  with  their  combinations 
and  compounds,  see  §  166. 

348.  —  Obs.  Though  it  is,  in  many  cases,  difficult  to  give  a  distinct 
translation  of  some  of  the  Greek  particles,  or  even  always  to  feel  their 
force,  yet  they  ought  never  to  be  regarded  as  mere  expletives.  In  all 
languages  there  are  particles  which  are  often  employed  chiefly  for  the 
sake  of  completeness,  or  in  order  to  produce  a  well-sounding  fulness, 
yet  never  without  their  own  peculiar  sense  ;  and  though  it  is  often  dif- 
ficult to  define  what  that  sense  is,  yet  every  one  feels  that  the  expres- 
sion is  incomplete  without  them.  So  it  is  also  in  the  Greek  language. 
The  full  and  original  meaning  of  many  of  those  particles  has  become 
partially  lost,  and  they  now  give  to  the  discourse  only  a  slight  colour- 
ing which  we  cannot  properly  feel  except  after  long  acquaintance  and 
practice.  For  a  more  full  elucidation  of  the  force  and  use  of  these  par- 
ticles, we  refer  the  reader  to  the  elaborate  work  of  Hoogeveen  on  the 
Greek  Particles. 


§  126.  SYJSTTAX.  203 


PART  III. 


§  126.  SYNTAX. 

349.— SYNTAX  is  that  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  proper  arrangement  and  connection 
of  words  in  a  sentence. 

350. — A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes 
complete  sense  ;  as,  Man  is  mortal. 

351. — A  Phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together, 
but  not  making  complete  sense  ;  as,  In  truth,  in  a  word. 

352. — Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  Simple  and  Compound. 

353. — A  Simple  sentence  contains  only  a  single  affirmation  ; 
as,  Life  is  short. 

354. — A  Compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple 
sentences  connected  together ;  as,  Life,  which  is  short,  should 
be  well  employed. 

355. — Every  simple  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the  subject 
aad  the  predicate. 

856. — The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed.  It 
is  either  in  the  nominative  case  before  a  finite  verb,  or  in  the 
nominative  or  accusative  before  the  infinitive. 

357. — The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 
It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  attribute  and  copula.  A  verb  which 
includes  both,  is  called  an  attributive  verb  ;  as,  "  John  reads.11  A 
verb  which  only  connects  the  attribute  expressed  by  another  word, 
with  the  subject,  is  called  a  copulative  verb ;  as,  "  John  is  reading." 

358. — Both  subject  and  predicate  may  be  attended  by  other 
words  called  adjuncts,  which  serve  to  restrict  or  modify  their 
meaning  ;  as,  "  Too  eager  a  pursuit  of  wealth  often  ends  in  pov- 
erty and  misery? 

359. — When  a  compound  sentence  is  so  framed  that  the  mean- 
ing is  suspended  till  the  whole  is  finished,  it  is  called  a  period. 


204  PAETS  OE  SYNTAX.  §  127,  128. 


360.— §  127.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  In  every  sentence  there  must  be  a  verb  and  a  nominative, 
or  subject  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  Every  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  participle, 
must  have  a  substantive  expressed  or  understood  with  which  it 


3.  Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent,  or  word  to  which 
it  refers,  and  with  which  it  agrees. 

4.  Every  subject  nominative  has  its  own  verb  expressed  or 
understood. 

5.  Every  verb  (except  in  the  infinitive  and  participles)  has  its 
own  subject  or  nominative  expressed  or  understood. 

6.  Every  oblique  case  is  governed  by  some  word  expressed 
or  understood  in  the  sentence  of  which  it  forms  a  part ;  or  it  is 
used,  without  government,  to  express  certain  circumstances ;  as 
follows : 

1)  The  genitive  is  governed  by  a  noun,  a  verb,  &  preposition, 
or  an  adverb  ;  or  it  is  placed  as  the  case  absolute  with  the  parti- 
ciple. 

2)  The  dative  is  governed  by  adjectives,  verbs,  and  preposi- 
tions.    It  also  expresses  the  cause,  manner,  or  instrument. 

3)  The  accusative  is  governed  by  a  transitive  active  verb  or 
preposition. 

4)  The  vocative  either  stands  alone,  or  is  governed  by  an 
interjection. 

5)  The  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
adverbial  particle. 


§128.— PARTS  OF  SYNTAX. 

361. — The  parts  of  Syntax  are  commonly  reck- 
oned two,  CONCORD  and  GOVERNMENT. 

362.-— CONCORD  is  the  agreement  of  one  word 
with  another  in  gender,  number,  case,  o?  person. 

363. — GOVERNMENT  is  that  power  which  one 
word  has  in  determining  the  mood,  tense,  or  case 
of  another  word. 


§129.  SUBSTANTIVE  WITH  SUBSTANTIVE.  205 

I.   CONCOED. 

364. — Concord  is  fourfold,  viz. : 

1.  Of  a  substantive  with  a  substantive.  • 

2.  Of  an  adjective  with  a  substantive. 

3.  Of  a  relative  with  its  antecedent. 

4.  Of  a  verb  with  its  nominative,  or  subject. 


§129.   A  SUBSTANTIVE  WITH  A.  SUBSTANTIVE. 

365.  —  RULE  I.  'Substantives  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing  agree  in  case  /  as, 

Ilavkog  aTtoGtohog,  Paul,  an  apostle. 

o  (jp/locroqpo^,       Socrates,  the  philosopher. 
To  God,  the  judge. 


366  —  Substantives  thus  used  are  said  to  be  in  apposition.  The 
second  substantive  is  added  to  express  some  attribute,  description,  or 
appellative  belonging  to  the  first,  and  must  always  be  in  the  same 
member  of  the  sentence  ;  i.  e.  they  must  be  both  in  the  subject,  or 
both  in  the  predicate.  A  substantive  predicated  of  another,  though 
denoting  the  same  thing,  is  not  in  apposition  with  it.  See  436. 

367.  —  Obs.  1.  One  of  the  substantives  is  sometimes  under- 
stood ;  as,  ^GTvdyqg  o  Kva%d()ov  (sup.  vibg),  Astyages,  the  SON 
of  Cyaxares. 

368.  —  Obs.  2.  The  possessive  pronoun  in  any  case  being  equi- 
valent in  signification  to  the  genitive  of  the  substantive  pronoun 
from  which  it  is  derived,  requires  a  substantive  in  apposition 
with  it  to  be  put  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  /JaijQ  I  [tog  r^v  Kvvwni- 
dog,  He  was  the  brother-in-law  OF  ME,  A  SHAMELESS  WOMAN. 
See  399-17. 

369.  —  Obs.  3.    On  the  same  principle,  possessive  adjectives 
formed  from  proper  names,  being  equivalent  to  the  genitive  of 
their  primitives,  have  a  noun  in  apposition  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 
NectOQerj  rraQa  vrfi  TLvkrflzviog  fiacikrjog,  Near  the  ship 
OF  NESTOR  A  KING  born  at  Pylos  ;  J^Lftrivalog  &v,  nokecog 
ri]S  peyiGriig,  Being  a  citizen  of  ATHENS,  a  very  large  CITY.    See 

'  399-18. 


206  CONCORD   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.     §  130,  131. 

370. — Obs.  4.  Sometimes  the  latter  of  two  substantives  sig- 
nifying the  same  thing,  is  put  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  Uohg  Ji%i]- 
(for  X&IIVVLI),  The  city  of  Athens. 


§  130.   AN  ADJECTIVE  WITH  A  SUBSTANTIVE. 

371. — RULE  II*  An  adjective  agrees  with  its 
substantive  in  gender,  number,  and  case  ;  as, 

XQijarbg  dv?]Q,  a  good  man. 

Kulil  rvvi],  '     a  beautiful  woman. 

aya&ov  %Qt/pu,  a  good  thing. 

372 — This  Rule  applies  to  the  article,  adjective,  adjective  pro- 
nouns, and  participles. 

373. —  Obs.  1.  Other  words  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives, 
and  consequently  fall  under  this  rule  ;  viz. 

1st.  A  substantive  which  limits  the  signification  of  a  more 
general  term  ;  as,  'E'k'kag  qpa>?//,  the  Greek  language. 

2d.  Adverbs  placed  between  the  article  and  its  substantive ; 
as,  6  (tsra^v  toTtog,  the  intervening  space. 

374. —  Obs.  2.  The  place  of  the  adjective  is  sometimes  sup- 
plied by  a  substantive  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  ijdovtj  per  a  dofyg 
(for  wdo^og),  exalted  pleasure : — sometimes,  by  a  substantive  gov- 
erning the  other  in  the  genitive ;  as,  fid&og  yqg,  depth  of  earth, 
i.  e.  deep  earth  ;  ?}  neQiGGSia  r^g  %&<QWog,  abundance  of  grace, 
\.  e.  abundant  grace.  For  the  adverbial  adjective,  see  662. 


§  131.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  CONCORD  OF  THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

375. —  Obs.  1.  Two  or  more  substantives  singular,  unless  taken 
separately,  have  an  adjective  plural.  If  all  the  substantives  be 
of  the  same  gender,  the  adjective  will  be  of  that  gender.  If  of 
different  genders,  the  adjective  takes  the  masculine  rather  than 
the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  rather  than  the  neuter.  But  if 
the  substantives  signify  things  without  life,  the  adjective  is  com- 
monly put  in  the  neuter  gender.  Not  unfrequently,  however,  the 
adjective  agrees  with  one  of  the  substantives  and  is  understood 


§  131.  CONCORD   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.  207 


to  the  rest;  as,  alsl  ycig  voi  SQig  is  cpikq, 

contention  to  thee  is  always  delightful,  and  wars  and  battles. 

376.  —  Obs.  2.  When  the  substantive  to  which  the  adjective 
belongs  may  be  easily  supplied,  it  is  frequently  omitted,  and  the 
adjective,  assuming  its  gender,  number,  and  case,  is  used  as  a 
substantive  ;  as,  6  4&vpKtfo$i  the  Athenian  ;  oi  dixaioi,  the  right- 
eous. 

377.  —  Obs.  3.  Adjectives  in.txo?  are  used  in  the  neuter  gen- 
der with  the  article,  and  without  a  substantive  in  two  different 
senses.     1.  In  the  singular  they  express  generally  a  whole  ;  as, 
rb  iTtmxov,  the  cavalry  ;  to  nohrMOv,  the  citizens.     2.  In  the 
plural  they  signify  any  circumstance  which  can  be  determined 
by  the  context;  as,  ra  TQOHMU,  the  Trojan  war;  ra  c£2Jl^NX<£, 
the  Grecian  history. 

378.  —  Obs.  4.  The  adjective,  especially  when  used  as  a  predi- 
cate, without  a  substantive,  is  often  put  in  the  neuter  gender, 
/(jjy^ce,    nQaypa,    fcooy,    &o.   being   understood;    as,-  /}   Tiaro}^ 
tyihtarov  (scil.  XQWa)  @QOtof£>  their  country  is  (a  thing)  VERY 
DEAR  to  men  ;  %a).£7ibv  to  noislv,  to  do  is  HARD. 

379.  —  Obs.  5.  Two  adjectives  are  frequently  joined  together, 
one  of  which,  by  expressing  negatively  the  sense  of  the  other, 
renders  it  more  emphatic  ;  as,  fvwra  d  ovx  ayvwtd  pot,  literally, 
known  and  not  unknown  (i.  e.  well  known],  to  me. 

380.  —  Obs.  6.   Adjectives  are  very  often  put  in  the  neuter 
singular  or  plural,  with  or  without  an  article,  for  adverbs  ;  as, 
71QWTOV,  in   the  first  place  ;  rb  TZQWTOV,  at  first  ;  ia  [tdkiGra, 
chiefiy  ;  XQvqiaia,  secretly,  <fec. 

.381.  —  Obs.  7.  In  any  gender  or  number,  adjectives  are  some- 
times used  in  the  sense  of  adverbs,  to  express  a  circumstance  of 
time,  place,  order,  manner;  as,  ensaov  ay%riGrivoi,  they  fell 
NEAR  EACH  OTHER;  acpMEro  SsvtSQalog  —  TQitaiog,  he  came 
on  THE  SECOND  —  THIRD  day,  662.  So  in  Latin,  qui  creatur  an- 
num. CaBS. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

382.  —  Exc.  1.  An  adjective  is  often  put  in  a  different  gender 
or  number  from  the  substantive  with  which  it  is  connected,  tacitly 
referring  to  its  meaning  rather  than  to  its  form,  or  to  some  other 
word  synonymous  with  it,  or  implied  in  it  ;  as, 

XOQIOV  wtHfota,  a  most  beautiful  girl. 

c3  dya&s  tyv%rjy  0  brave  soul. 

nvQ  l7iicp£QOvra$,       a  band  of  thieves  bringing  fire. 


208  CONCOKD   OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  §  131. 

383. — Exc.  2.  A  collective  noun  in  the  singular  may  have  an 
adjective  in  the  plural,  and  in  the  gender  of  the  individuals  which 
form  the  collection;  as,  ^ovA/}  ^Gv^iav  efyev — ovx  ayvovvzeg, 
^•COUNCIL  kept  peaceable — not  BEING  IGNORANT. 

So  in  Latin,  maxima  pars — in  flumen  acti  sunt.     Lat.  Gr.  279. 

384. — Exc.  3.  In  the  dual  number,  the  Attic  writers  some- 
times join  a  masculine  adjective  with  a  feminine  noun;  as,  TOVTW 
roi  rjfASQa,  these  two  days. 

385. — Exc.  4.  An  adjective  masculine,  in  the  superlative  de- 
gree, is  sometimes  joined  to  a  feminine  noun,  to  increase  the  force 
of  the  superlative  ;  as,  al  XOQCU  pekdvraTOi,,  VERY  BLACK  pu- 
pils. Also,  a  masculine  adjective  is  joined  with  a  feminine  noun, 
when  the  plural  is  used  for  the  singular,  and  when  a  chorus  of 
women  speak  of  themselves  ;  thus,  Medea  says  of  herself,  %al  yag 
qdixijfiKvoi  aiffiGOfis&a,  XQEIGGOVWV  vixcopEvoi,  though  IN- 
JURED I  will  be  silent,  YIELDING  to  superior  powers. 

386. — Exc.  5.  An  adjective  in  the  masculine  gender  may  be 
joined  with  a  noun  denoting  a  female,  if  the  attention  is  drawn 
to  the  idea  of  a  person  without  regard  to  the  sex. 

387. — Exc.  6.  A  substantive  dual  may  have  an  adjective  plu- 
ral ;  and  vice  versa,  a  substantive  plural,  when  two  is  denoted, 
may  have  an  adjective  dual ;  as,  cpilag  nsol  %eiQ£  ft  diaper,  let 
us  embrace  ;  dvo  %  a  a  par  a  s%0[isvG)  fftUtyUoy,  two  successive 
chasms  ;  lit.  two  CHASMS  ADJOINING  each  other. 

388. — Exc.  7.  The  adjectives  waGtog,  aHog,  in  the  singular, 
are  put  with  nouns  in  the  plural,  to  intimate  that  the  objects  ex- 
pressed by  them  are  spoken  of  individually  and  distributively ;  as, 

olds  sxacrog  lds%ovro  de'xa,        THEY  EACH  received  ten. 
TIQWVWV  ds  alhog  allo,  THEY   asked   SOME  one  thing 

and  SOME  another. 

So  in  Latin,  Quisque  pro  se  queruntur.     Liv.  Lat.  Gr.  281. 

389. — Exc.  8.  Plural  adjectives  sometimes  agree  with  their 
substantives  in  gender  and  number,  and  govern  them  in  the  gen- 
itive case ;  as,^ 

ot  Ttakouol  T&v  noirjrwv,  the  ancient  poets. 

So  also  among  the  Attic  writers  in  the  singular  ;  as, 
diaTolficov  rbv  Ttoh'Lov  rov  %QOVOV,       spending  MUCH  TIME. 

390. — Exc.  9.  Instead  of  agreeing  with  its  substantive,  the 
adjective  is  sometimes  put  in  the  neuter  gender,  and  the  substan- 
tive following  it  in  the  genitive  (461);  as,  elg  roaovrov 


§  132.          COMPAKATIVES  AND   SUPERLATIVES.  209 


(for  roGavTrjv  roA^y),  to  such  a  pitch  of  boldness.  The  abstract 
noun  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  adjective  ;  as,  fid&og  yqg, 
depth  of  earth,  instead  of  fia&sia  7^,  deep  earth.  374. 

391.  —  Exc.  10.  Proper  names  in  the  singular,  are  sometimes 
accompanied  by  the  adjectives  a  game,  nag,  and  others  in  the 
neuter  plural,  as  predicates  or  in  apposition  ;  as,  Aapnwv,  Alyi- 
rtftie&v  rd  rtQwra,  Lampon,  THE  CHIEF  of  the  ^Eginetce  ;  adv- 
ia  dq  jjv  roiGi  BafivkwvioiGi  ZaavQog,  ZOPYRUS  was  indeed 
EVERY  THING  to  the  Babylonians. 

392.  —  Exc.  11.  Demonstrative  pronouns  in  the  neuter  singu- 
lar, may  refer  to  nouns  of  any  gender  which  do  not  express  a 
person  ;  and  in  the  neuter  plural,  to  persons  as  well  as  things, 
and  to  the  singular  as  well  as  to  the  plural  ;  as,  neol  dvdQiag, 
Ini  noGcp    av  avrov  (drdQi'ag)   dt'^ato   cm'^crihu  ;   concerning 
MANLY  FORTITUDE,  for  how  much  would  you  consent  to  be  de- 
prived OF  IT  ?  voig  slg  ravra  s^apaQrdvovGi,  who  offend  against 
THESE,  scil.  rovg  naldag  '/.ui  rag  yvvcuxag,  wives  and  children. 

So  also  with  the  adjectives  ntewv,  nksico,  pewr,  &c.;  as, 
In  n  sag  [ASV  a<*ei  ov  fieiov  diffftdoittW,  he  will  bring  not  less 
than  twenty  thousand  horse  ;  lit.  he  will  bring  HORSEMEN  not 
FEWER  than  twenty  thousand. 


393._§  132.  COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES. 

1.  The  comparative  is  used  when  two  objects  or  classes  of 
objects  are  compared ;  the  superlative,  when  more  than  two  are 
compared. 

2.  The  positive  is  sometimes  used  in  a  comparative  sense,  and 
is  followed  by  the  infinitive ;.  as,  okiyoi  Gvpfiakew,  too  few  to 
fyht. 

3.  When  one  quality  is  compared  with  another  in  the  same 
subject,  the  adjectives  expressing  these  qualities  are  both  put  in 
the  comparative  degree  connected  by  % ;    as,   7ikovGiwT8Qog  TI 
GoycoreQog,  more  rich  than  wise.     So  in  Latin,  decentior  quam 
sublimior  fuit.  Tacit.  Lat.  Gr.  474. 

4.  The  comparative  is  sometimes  made  by  joining  fiaMov 
with  the  positive  ;  and,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  sometimes  with 
the  comparative  ;  as,  iialkov  o^imiSQog,  more  happy. 

5.  The  superlative  is  often  used  to  express  a  very  high  degree 
of  a  quality  in  an  object,  but  without  comparing  it  with  any 


210  ADJECTIVE   PRONOUJSTS.  §  133. 

other ;  as,  MVIJQ  (pdori[ji6Ta,rog,  a  very  ambitious  man  ;  TtQtjyfjia 
8vq&40Teerw,  a  very  foolish  thing.  168. 

6.  The  superlative  is  often  strengthened  in  signification  by 
adding  certain  adverbial  words  and  particles ;  such  as,  iroA^G), 

£          +  ,          n  /  T    ~  v       r «       »  v        r  '  „  "' 

jU«x(7fo,  TTOAV,  pauGTa,  TfteiGiov,  o##,  tot,',  oncog,  on,  ?/,  &c. ;  as, 
nokicp  &G&9MGT8&O*,  much  the  weakest ;  o%  ctQiGrog,  eminently 
the  best  ;  cog  vd%t0va9  as  quickly  as  possible  ;  on,  nfaiGTov  %QO- 
vovj  as  long  time  as  possible.  'Also  by  the  numeral  sig  ;  as,  i-ig 
dvtjQ  fi&riG'tog,  a  man  of  all  others  the  best. 

For  the  construction  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  de- 
grees, as  it  respects  government,  see  472  and  482. 


§133.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

394.  —  SPECIAL  RULE.  Adjective  pronouns  agree 
with  their  substantives  in  gender,  number,  and 
case. 

395.  —  The  Definite,  avrog. 

For  the  import  and  use  of  the  Definite  pronoun  avtog,  see 
§  62.  In  construction  it  is  often  similar  to  the  demonstratives, 
396-5. 

1.  When  used  as  a  personal  pronoun,  avtog  takes  the  gender 
and  number  of  the  noun  for  which  it  stands,  and  the  case  which 
the  noun  would  have  in  its  place.  Sometimes,  however,  like  the 
adjective  (382),  it  takes  the  gender  and  number  of  a  synony- 
mous substantive,  or  of  one  that  expresses  the  meaning  of  that  for 
which  it  stands;  as,  padrjtsvGars  Tidvra  ra  s&vri  fia7iT%ovreg 
avvovg,  "  teach  all  NATIONS  baptizing  THEM,"  where  avzovg  is 
put  for  dv&QWTZovg,  which  expresses  the  meaning 


observation  applies  to  all  adjective  pronouns  used  with- 
out, and  instead  of,  the  substantives,  to  which  they  refer. 

396  .  —  Demonstratives. 

2.  The  Demonstratives  are  used  without  a  substantive,  only 
when  they  refer  to  a  noun,  or  pronoun,  or  substantive  clause  in 
the  proposition  going  before,  or  in  that  coming  immediately  after. 

3.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of,  ovrog,  this,  re- 
fers to  the  latter;  sxewog,  that,  to  the  former.      In  the  same 


§  133.  ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS.  211 

manner  are  sometimes  used  6  [AW,  og  per,  referring  to  the  for- 
mer, and  6  ds,  og  8s9  referring  to  the  latter  ;  sometimes  vice  versa. 

4.  The  demonstratives   ovzog  and  ode   are  generally  distin- 
guished thus ;  ovTog  refers  to  what  immediately  precedes,  ode  to 
what   immediately  follows ;    as,  tavra   dxovcrag,  having  heard 
these  things  ;  Sieye  rdde,  he  announced  as  follows. 

5.  The  demonstrative  words  are  frequently  used  in  a  kind  of 
apposition  with  a  noun,  or  pronoun,  or  part  of  a  sentence  in  the 
same  proposition.     This  is  done,  1.  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or, 
at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  to  call  the  attention  more  particu- 
larly to  what  is  to  be  said ;  as,  vi  $  s  x  e  Iv  a  qxapev,  f«ff  nevais 
re  KVLI  SQwrfoeig,  ivhat  shall  I  say  AS  TO  THESE  THINGS  question 
and  interrogation?  LONG,  ri  nor    sanv  avro,'f]  aQEti];  what 
is  virtue  ?     In  such  cases  the  pronoun  is  commonly  in  the  neu- 
ter gender.     2.  If  the  parts  of  a  sentence  immediately  related, 
are  separated  by  intervening  clauses,  the  pronoun,  being  intro- 
duced in  the  last  part,  in  apposition  with  the  distant  word  in  the 
first,  brings  them  as  it  were  together;  as,  akka  &eovg  ye  rovg 
del  ovxag  xou  .  .  .  .  lovrovg    cpofiovpevoi  [it'jTe  O6e@*$   pqdfv 
7ioitj6t]T8,  "  but  THE  GODS  who  are  eternal,  and  whose  power  and 
inspection  extend  over  all  things,  and  who  preserve  the  harmony 
and  order  of  the  universe  free  from  decay  or  defect,  the  great- 
ness and  beauty  of  which  is  inexplicable  —  fearing  THESE,  do 
nothing  wicked" 

6.  When  that  with  which  the  demonstrative  stands  in  appo- 
sition is  a  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  it  is  put  in  the  neuter 
gender,  and  is  often  connected  with  it  by  on  or  ca£ ;  as,  «H5 
olds  rovro,  on  ravra  [iiv  lo~nv  anavta  ra  %(*)Qia  x&'peva  Iv 
pSGcp,  but  he  knows  THIS  well,  that  all  these  places  are  openly  be- 
fore them. 

The  sentence  is  sometimes  so  arranged  that  the  clause  with 
on  stands  first;  as,  on  ft  ei%s  nreQa,  rovr'1  toper,  but  we  knew 
THIS,  that  he  had  wings.  This  construction,  so  common  in  Greek, 
is  seldom  if  ever  used  in  Latin. 

7.  OvTog,  with  xat  before  it,  is  used  in  the  latter  clause  of  a 
sentence,  in  an  adverbial  or  conjunctive  sense,  to  call  the  atten- 
tion more  particularly  to  the  circumstance  which  it  introduces, 
and  may  be  rendered  "and  that"  "and  truly"  "indeed"  "al- 
though," &c.,  as  the  sense  may  require j  as,   ovroi  yaQ  povvoi 
'Iwvcov  ovx    iiyovGi  Anatovgia,    xal  ovroi  y.ara   cpovov   nva 
Gxijifriv,  for  these  alone  of  the  lonians  do  not  celebrate  the  Apa- 
touria,  AND  THAT  under  pretext  of  a  certain  murder  ;  lit.  and 
these  (do  so)  under  pretext,  &c.     FvvaMog  xal  ravr^g 


212  ADJECTIVE   PKONOUNS.  §183. 


a,  TiecpQixe,  if  any  one  mentions  the  name  of  a 
woman,  ALTHOUGH  (i.  e.  and  THAT  woman  being)  DEAD,  he  shud- 
ders. 

But  when  the  pronoun  is  less  definite,  not  referring  to  any 
particular  substantive  in  the  preceding  clause,  but  to  something 
expressed  in  it,  it  is  put  in  the  neuter  plural,  and  may  generally 
be  rendered  "  especially"  "  although"  &c.  ;  as,  2?v  ds  \noi  doxeig 
ov  KQoafy&r  vov  vovv  rovzoig,  xal  ravia  aocpbg  eo*>,  but  you  do 
not  seem  to  me  to  give  your  attention  to  these  things,  ALTHOUGH 
being  wise.  Expressions  of  this  kind  are  doubtless  elliptical, 
noitfg  or  some  such  word  being  understood,  and  may  be  ren- 
dered "  and  these  things  you  do"  Indeed,  it  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed ;  thus,  in  Dem.  pro  Phor.,  after  reproaching  Apollodorus 
with  his  dissolute  conduct,  he  adds,  %al  ravra  yvvaixcx,  'i^wv 
ftoieig,  AND  THESE  THINGS  YOU  DO,  having  a  wife  ;  which,  with- 
out Ttoisig,  might  be  rendered  "  THOUGH  having  a  wife" 

Yet  sometimes  these  words  seem  to  have  no  dependence  on  . 
any  part  of  the  sentence,  but  are  thrown  in  to  call  the  attention 
to  a  special  circumstance. 

8.  The  demonstrative  pronoun  is  often  joined  with  adverbs  of 
time  and  place,  to  define  these  circumstances  with  greater  empha- 
sis or  precision  ;  as,  ra  i>vv  tads,  just  now  ;  vovr    f'xer,  at  that 
very  time. 

9.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  sometimes  used  instead  of 
the  personal  pronouns  s^co  and  GV,  and,  in  speaking,  when  thus 
used,  were  probably  accompanied  with  action,  so  as  clearly  to 
point  out  the  person  intended.     When  used  instead  of  the  2d 
person,  they  most  commonly  express  contempt.     The  expression 
ovrog  slpi  is  equivalent  to  the  Latin  en  adsum,  Lo  !  here  am  L 

397.  —  The  Indefinite  Tig. 

10.  The  indefinite  vlg,  188,  added  to  a  substantive,  commonly 
answers  to  the  English  words  a,  an,  a  certain  one,  any  one,  &c.  ; 
as,  tig  dvrjQ,  a  man,  any  man,  some  man.—  Sometimes  with  a 
noun  it  is  used  collectively  ;  as,  &QCQGXOW  r  I  g  xara 


l%&vg,  MANY  A  FISH  bounding  through  the  wave.  —  Sometimes 
distributively  ;  as,  xaJ  1  1  g  olxiriv  avuTt'kaGdGd'w,  and  let  EVERY 
ONE  build  his  own  house. 

11.  With  adjectives  of  quality,  quantity,  and  magnitude,  es- 
pecially when  they  stand  without  a  substantive  expressed,  or  in 
the  predicate,  it  serves  to  temper  the  expression  by  asserting  the 
existence  of  the  quality  in  a  less  positive  and  unlimited  manner, 


§133.  ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS.  213 

such  as  may  be  expressed  by  the  English  words  somewhat,  in 
some  degree,  rather  ;  as,  dvafiarog  rig,  SOMEWHAT  difficult  to  be 
passed  ;  dvapa&rjg  rig,  RATHER  hard  to  learn.  With  numerals 
it  means  nearly,  about,  &c. ;  as,  dt'xa  tt?£&  about  ten.  So  also 
with  adverbs ;  as,  G%t8ov,  nearly ;  6%ed6v  TI,  pretty  nearly  ; 
7ioJivf  much  ;  nokv  ri,  considerably  ;  ovdw,  nothing  ;  ovde'v  TI, 
scarcely  any  thing. 

12.  Without  an  additional  adjective,  rig  has  the  sense  of  emi- 
nent, distinguished ;  as,  sv%erai  rig  swathe  boasts  himself  to 

be  SOME  GREAT  ONE. 

13.  In  the  neuter  gender,  it  is  also  sometimes  nearly  redun- 
dant, being  introduced  apparently  for  the  sake  of  sound.     In  such 
cases  it  is  to  be  considered  in  the  accusative  governed  by  Kara, 
and  seems  to  strengthen  the  expression ;  as,  ovrs  TI 

not  being  AT  ALL  a  prophet;  nfya  TI  xou  tfeGTteGi 
a  work  of  art  EVIDENTLY  great  and  divine. 

398. — The  Interrogative  riq. 

14.  The  interrogative  tig,  TI,  is  used  in  asking  a  direct  ques- 
tion ;  as,  rig  ITZOI^GS;  WHO  did  it  ?     Though  sometimes  used  in 
the  indirect  interrogation,  oGTig  is  more  common  ;   as,  ftavfjid^G) 
rig  (or  more  frequently  OGTig)  ITIOITJGS,  I  wonder  WHO  did  it. 
Sometimes  it  is  accompanied  by  the  article  6  Tig,  who  ;  TO  TI, 
wJiat.    f'OGTig  is  always  used  interrogatively  when  a  person  to 
whom  an  interrogation  is  put,  repeats  it  before  answering  it ;  as, 
en*  #'  si  rig  avSQWv  ;  OGTig  sift1  syoa  ;  MSTCOV,  who  are  you  ?  who 
{*•-•*  I?  Meton. 

15.  In  the  predicate,  TI,  with  larl  following  it,  is  sometimes  ac- 
•  impanied  by  the  subject  of  ear  I  in  the  plural ;  as,  ftavpa^G)  il 

or3  Icjri  Tavra,  I  wonder  WHAT  THESE  THINGS  are. 

16.  The  interrogative  rig  is  often  used  independently  of  other 
/ords  in  the  sentence,  being  governed  by  xarcc,  or  some  such 
vord  understood,  and  may  be  rendered  in  what?  as  to  what? 
fee.;  as,  iwv  T i  Goqiwv  sTUGzfyoveg ;  IN  WHAT  SORT  of  wisdom 
ire  they  expert  ?     Sometimes  it  is  used  for  Sia  ri,  or  ngog  ri, 
what  ?  why  ?  on  what  account  ?  inl  ri,  for  what  purpose  ?  nwg 
TI,  how  ?     So,  ri  tie,  but  what  ? 

399. — Possessive  Pronouns. 

17.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  in  signification  equivalent  to 
the  genitive  of  the  pronoun  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  while, 
like  the  adjective,  it  agrees  with  its  substantive  in  gender,  num.- 


214  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE   ARTICLE.  §  134. 

ber,  and  case,  yet  other  words  at  the  same  time  often  regard  it  as 
the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun.  Hence  the  following  modes 
of  expression,  to  GOV  povov  dwQtjfta,  equivalent  to  TO  cov  povov, 
&c.,  tfi.e  gift  OF  THEE  ALONE.  AQVvpwos  natQog  ve  pfya  xleog 
ijtf  ffibv  avrovy  \vhere  f^ov  agrees  with  xfa'og  in  the  accusative, 
and  yet,  as  if  it  were  the  genitive  of  the  substantive  pronoun,  it 
is  coupled  with  natQog  in  the  genitive,  and  followed  by  avrov. 
So  also  vmxeQOv  ke'%og  avrwv,  our  own  bed  ;  ra  VfisrtQa  avitiv, 
your  own  property  ;  rr^v  GCptTeQav  avzwv  (scil.  #co£>ai>),  their  own 
country. 

The  same  construction  is  common  in  Latin  ;  as,  "  mea  ipsius 
culpa."  "  Cum  mea  nemo  scripta  legat,  vulgo  recitare  timentis" 
"  Beneficio  meo  et  populi  Romani."  Lat.  Gr.  256  and  283. 

18.  The  same  observation  extends  to  possessive  adjectives ; 
as,  el  8s  ps  dei  yvvaixsiag  11  aQ^r^g  oaai  vvv  ev  ffloeia  laov- 
xaiy  [AvqG&ijvcu,  If  J  must  also  say  something  concerning  the  vir- 
tue of  THOSE  WOMEN,  WHO  are  from   this  time  to  live  in  widow- 
hood ;  where  fywux&&$,  is  equivalent  to  the  genitive  rwv  yvvai- 
KWV,  to  which  OGCU  refers. 

19.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  employed  only  when  an  em- 
phasis is  required ;  in  all  other  cases  the '  personal  pronouns  are 
used  in  their  stead ;  as,  narqQ  fywv,  our  father,  literally,  the 
father  of  us.     But  Tiarr^  jflihsQog  means  our  own  father. 

20.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  objectively ; 
as,  cog  xo&og,  not  "  thy  regret"  but  "  regret  for  thee  ; "  rapa 
vov&eTrftiara,  not  "  the  lessons  which  J  give"  but  "  the   lessons 
which  thou  givest  me"    This  use  of  the  possessive  corresponds  to 
the  passive  sense  of  the  genitive,  452. 

21.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  sometimes  put  in  the  neuter 
gender  with  the  article,  for  the  personal;  as,  rb  Vf&rfQor  for 
vpeTg  ;  -m/m'for  Jyw  ;  rb  Iftov  for  Ifjis.     Also  without  the  article 
after  a  preposition ;  as,  iv  fjftetKQOv  (scil.  doJftaf(),  for  Iv  fyt&99  in 
our  house. 


§  134.  CONSTEUCTIOISr  OF  THE  ARTICLE.  ' 

400. — SPECIAL  RULE.  The  article  agrees  with  its 
substantive  in  gender,  number,  and  case. 

401. — Exc.  1.  In  gender.  The  masculine  article  is  often  put 
with  a  feminine  noun  in  the  dual  number  (384) ;  as,  roa  yvvcaw, 
the  two  women. 


§  134.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE   ARTICLE.  215 

402. — Exc.  2.  In  number.  The  article  may  be  put  in  the 
plural,  when  it  refers  to  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular  (375)  ; 
as,  al  MfapWi  IE  xal  f/H(>r],  Minerva  and  Juno. 

403. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Nouns  used  indefinitely  are  commonly  without  the  article. 
In  general,  the  article  is  prefixed  to  all  nouns  not  used  indefinitely. 
Nouns  are  made  definite  by  a  limiting  word,  phrase,  or  clause  ; 
by  previous  mention,  by  general  notoriety  or  distinction,  by  pecu- 
liarity of  state  or  relation,  or  by  emphasis  or  contrast. 

2.  The  article  is  prefixed  to  nouns  when  they  designate  a 
class,  or  species;  as,  6  iiv&QtoTtog  law  ftvyrog,  MAN  is  mortal. 

3.  It  is  prefixed  to  abstract  nouns  when  personified,  or  with 
a  reference  to  something  expressed  or  understood ;  as,  *H  K  a  v,  (a 
vaohafiovGa  sine,  VICE  interrupting  said ;  ti]v  aMj&etav  neol 
tovz&v,  THE  TRUTH  concerning  these  things. 

4.  When  one  noun  is  predicated  of  another,  the  subject  of  the 
proposition  is  generally  found  with  the  article,  and  the  predicate 
without  it ;  as,  aaxog  lyevstf  /}  xoQrjy  THE  MAIDEN  became  a 
wine-skin. 

5.  The  article  is  prefixed  to  nouns  to  mark  emphasis  or  dis- 
tinction; as,  6  7i  6  he  [tog  ovx  iivsv  xivdvvavj  j\  ds  eiQqvr]  dxwdv- 
vog,  WAR  is  not  without  dangers,  but  PEACE  is  free  from  danger  ; 
(here  the  opposition  between  6  nofafiog  and  ?/  elgqw]  renders  both 
words  emphatic,  which'  is  marked  by  the  article  prefixed ;)  6 
notijftjgj  the  Poet,  scil.  Homer, 

6.  Proper  names,  when  first  mentioned,  are  without  the  arti- 
cle ;  on  renewed  mention,  they  generally  have  it.     But  the  arti- 
cle is  never  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  followed  by  an  appellative 
with  the  article ;  as,  KvQog  o  fiaGitevg,  Cyrus  the  king. 

7.  The  article  is  generally  placed  before  appellatives,  and  all 
words  and  phrases  which  are  placed  after  a  substantive  for  the 
purpose  of  definition  or  description  ;  such  as  a  substantive  in  ap- 
position, an  adjective,  a  participle,  an  adverb,  a  preposition  with 
its  case  ;  as,  ^wxQdrqg  6  cpikoGocpog,  Socrates,  the  philosopher  ; 
ol  viywi  oi  aQ%aioi,  the  ancient  laws,  &c. 

8.  Before  a  participle,  the  article  is  to  be  translated  as  the  re-  ' 
lative,  and  the  participle  as  the  indicative  mood  of  its  "own  tense  ; 
as,  eltil  oi  keyovreg,  there  are  (those)  WHO  SAY.     But, 

9.  A  participle  between  the  article  and  its  noun  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  an  adjective,  and  rendered  accordingly ;  as,  o/  vizaQ- 
%ovreg  vofioi,  the  existing  laws.     So  also,  other  words  and  phrases 
between  the  article  and  its  noun,  like  an  adjective,  qualify  the 


216  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ARTICLE.  §  134. 

noun,  and  frequently  have  a  participle  understood ;  as,  r/  agog 
rakciTag  [*d%i]  ;  scil.  ywoj*Wty  the  battle  against  the  Gauls. 

10.  An  adverb  with  the  article  prefixed  is  used  sometimes  as 
a  noun,  sometimes  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  oi  a&ag,  those  near,  i.*  e. 
the  neighbours  ;  //  ava  nbfag,  the  upper  city,  378. 

11.  Adjectives,  participles,  adverbs,  adverbial  particles   and 
phrases,  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns,  have  the  article  prefixed ;  as, 
oi  ftvyToi,  mortals  ;  oi  xohaxevovTsg,  flatterers  ;  ^  CX.VQIOV  (scil. 
TfjiSQa),  the  morrow  ;  TO  rl,  the  substance  ;  TO  noiov,  the  quality  ; 
TO  nocovj  the  quantity  ;  TO  (x>g,  the  manner  in  which,  &c. 

12.  The  article  without  a  substantive,  before  dpcptor  ar«£/ With 
their  case,  denotes  something  peculiar  to,  or  distinguishing  the 
person,  place,  or  thing  expressed  by  the  noun  ;  as,  oi  Tieol  &rjQav, 
those  devoted  to  the  chase,  i.  e.  "  hunters  ; "  TO  nsol  ^tapifjaxov, 
the  affair  at  Lampsacus ;  Ta  a^yl  nok^ov,  what  belongs  to  war  ; 
sometimes  it  is  a  mere  circumlocution  for  the  noun  itself;  as,  TM 
neol  Tip  a^aQTiav,  for  ?/  apagtla? 

13.  01  TteQiy  and  oi  dpcpl,  with  a  proper  name,  have  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  of  meaning;  viz.  1.  the  person  himself ;  as, 
oi  dpyi  TlQia^ov  xal  Ildv&oov,  Priam  and  Panthous ;  2.  the 

followers  of  the  person  named  ;  as.  oi  rtsol  JlQ%i8a{iov,  the  com- 
panions of  Archidamus  ;  3.  the  person  named,  and  his  compan- 
ions and  followers  ;  as,  oi  dpqil  UeiGiCTQaTor,  Pisistratus  and 
his  troops. 

14.  The  neuter  article  in  any  case  prefixed  to  the  infinitive 
mood  (§  173,  I.),  gives  it  the  sense  and  construction  of  the  Latin 
gerund,  or  a  verbal  noun  ;  as,  TOV  quhoaocpew  TO  tyiTzlv,  inquir- 
ing is  the  business  of  philosophy  ;  TO  xakwg  lify&v,  the  speaking 
well. 

15.  In  the  neuter  gender,  and  in  any  case  which  the  con- 
struction requires,  the  article  is  placed,  1.  Before  entire  propo- 
sitions or  quotations  in  a  sentence  construed  as  nouns ;  as,  ETI 

d8    TOVTGW    TQLTTl    diaqiOQCC,  TO,  C0£    £X#0T#    TOVTCOV    [MptjGCUTO    &V 

Tig,  Moreover  there  is  in  these  a  third  difference,  viz.  the  manner 
in  which  one  should  imitate  each  of  these  objects ;  «x  ds  TOVTWV 
OQ&wg  av  e%oi  TO  "  fytfOf  d'  ovdlv  ovudog"  but  according  to 
these  views,  the  sentiment  "  labour  is  no  dishonour "  would  be 
correct.  2.  Before  single  words  quoted  or  designated  in  a  sen- 
tence; as,  TO  d'  vpeig  OTOLV  Einw,  Tip  7io7.iv  hey 00,  when  I  say 
YOU,  /  mean  the  state  ;  TO  tayoo,  the  word  hfyco.  But  in  nouns, 
the  article  is  commonly  in  the  gender  of  the  noun  ;  as,  TO  wopa 
o  f'j4idqg,  the  name  Hades. 

16.  The  article  is  often  prefixed  to  possessive,  demonstrative, 


§  134.  CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   ARTICLE.     '  217 

distributive,  and  other  pronouns,  for  the  sake  of  greater  emphasis 
or  more  precise  definition ;  thus,  spbg  viog,  is  merely  a  son  of 
mine  ;  but  6  ipbg  viog,  is  my  son.  The  following  change  of  sig- 
nification effected  by  the  article  may  be  noticed  : 

akloi  others,  ol  odJkoi  the  others,  the  rest. 

dkl-ri  other,  rt  afat]  'EMdg        the  rest  of  Greece. 

7iok\oi  many,  oi  TTO^OI  the  multitude. 

tifeiovg  more,  oi  rtfaiovg  the  most. 

avrog  himself,  b  avrog  the  same. 

ndvreg  all,  ol  ndvrBg  (after  numerals)  in  all. 

oily  oi  few,  oi  bliyoi  the  few,  the  Oligarchs. 

17.  When  the  article  is  used  with  ovrog  or  $xe&o$,  the  pro- 
noun must  stand  before  the  article,  or  after  the  substantive  ;  as, 
ovrog  b  dvtjQ,  or  6  dvtjQ  ovrog,  this  same  man. 

18.  The  article  is  frequently  used  alone,  having  its  substantive 
understood.     This  is  the  case  when  the  substantive  to  which  the 
article  refers,  being  apparent  from  the  connection  or  sense  of  the 
passage,  can  be  easily  supplied.     The  neuter  article  is  often  thus 
used  with  the  genitive  of  another  noun,  %QJjp,a,  nQaypa,  &c., 
being  understood  : — 1.  In  the  singular,  to  intimate  what  a  person 
has  done,  is  wont  to  do,  or  has  befallen  him ;  as,  HOLI  rot,  floxw 
pot  r  b  rov  'IfivxeTov  innov  nsnqv&svai,  and  I  seem  to  be  in  the 
SAME   SITUATION  with  the  horse  of  Ibycus.     2.  In  the  plural,  to 
denote  every  thing  that  concerns,  arises  from,  or  belongs  to,  that 
which  the  substantive  expresses ;  as,  rd  cptt.c*)i>  tf  ovdw,  THE  AS- 
SISTANCE of  friends  is  nothing;  del  qvQeiv  rd  rwv   &&MV,  we 
must  bear  THE  VISITATION  of  the  gods.     In  the  singular  or  plural, 
it  is  often  merely  a  periphrasis  for  the  substantive ;  as,  TO  or  rd 
vtjg  JQpfr  for  TI  OQPI  ;  and  an  adjective,  &c.  put  with  such  a 
periphrasis  takes  the  gender  and  number  of  the  substantive,  and 
the  case  of  the  article;  as,  rd  rav  diaxovow — noiovpevoi,,  the 
messengers — considering. 

19.  The  article  combined  with  \iiv  and  de,  has  in  some  de- 
gree the  force  of  a  pronoun,  and  is  used  in  a  distributive  sense, — 
the  article  with  [isv  standing  in  the  first'  member  of  the  sentence, 
and  with-&' in  the  parts  that  follow;  as,  rov  fisv  Iripa,  rbv  d* 
ov,  THIS  ONE,  he  honoured,  THAT  ONE"WO£;  ol  psv  ixvfavov,  oi 
d'  mivov,  oi  d'  lyvfivd&vro,  SOME  played  at  dice,  SOME  drank, 
SOME  exercised   themselves.     When  governed  by  a  preposition, 
ue'v  and  ds  are  placed  immediately  after  the  preposition ;  thus, 
iv  i^v  roig — -iv  ds  roig. 

20.  In  the  Ionic  arid  some  other  writers,  especially  Homer 

10 


218  KELATIVE   PKONOUN.  §  135. 

and  Herodotus,  the  article  6,  ay,  to,  is  very  frequently  used  as  a" 
relative,  and  sometimes  as  a  personal  pronoun ;  as,  Jfy&UUa 
tyevyw  tbv  IdeTv  alo^vvofiat,  I  flee  from  Achilles  WHOM  /  am 
ashamed  to  see ;  to  ^ev  Its&anto,  IT  (the  child)  was  buried. 
1 86-2. 


§135.  THE  KELATIVE  PRONOUN. 

404. — RULE  III,  The  relative-  agrees  with  its 
antecedent  in  gender,  number,  %&&  person  ;  as, 

//  yvvij  i\v  e'idopev,  the  WOMAN  WHOM  we  saw. 

o  aviiQ  og  ?}).'&£,  the  MAN  WHO  came. 

to,  %Qt][A,ata  a  £?/£,  the  THINGS  WHICH  he  had. 

405. — 1.  The  antecedent  is  the  substantive,  or  something 
equivalent  to  a  substantive  (421),  in  a  preceding  clause  to  which 
the  relative  refers.  Sometimes,  however,  as  in  Latin,  the  relative 
and  its  clause  is  placed  before  the  antecedent  and  its  clause. 

406. — 2.  Strictly  speaking,  the  relative  does  not  agree  with 
the  antecedent,  but  with  the  same  word  expressed  or  understood 
after  the  relative,  and  with  which,  like  the  adjective,  it  agrees  in 
gender,  number,  and  case,  as  well  as  person  ;  thus,  6  mnog  ov 
(iHTtov)  stye,  the  horse  which  (horse)  he  had.  Hence,  in  connect- 
ing the  antecedent  and  relative  clauses,  the  following  variety  of 
usage  occurs ;  viz., 

1st.  The  word  to  which  the  relative  refers  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed in  the  antecedent  clause,  and  not  with  the  rela- 
tive ;  as,  ovtog  lo~ti  o  dvtjQ  ov  £ideg,  this  is  the  MAN 
WHOM  you  saw. 

2d.  It  is  often  not  expressed  in  the  antecedent  clause, -and 
expressed  with  the  relative  ;  as,  ovtog  Ian  ov  eldsg  av- 


3d.  Sometimes,  when  greater  precision  is  required,  it  is  ex-r 
pressed  in  both  ;  as,  ovtog  lati  o  dvqQ  ov  sideg  avdpa. 

4th.  When  the  reference  is  of  a  general  nature,  and  there  is 
no  danger  of  obscurity,  the  word  to  which  the  relative 
refers  is  understood  in  both  clauses  ;  as,  ov  ifi&ei  sxtave, 
ov  fj&ekei  S6coo~e,  whom  he  would  he  slew,  whom  he  would 
he  saved  alive.  All  this  variety  is  common*  in  Latin  as 
well  as  in  Greek.  (Lat.  Gr.  286.) 


§  135.  RELATIVE   PRONOUN.  219 

407. — 3.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  implied  in  a  preceding 
word  ;  as,  oixi 'a  //  vpereQa  o i  ye  $>ij(7#8,  <fec.,  your  house  who 
use,  &c.,  where  ol  refers  to  the  personal  pronoun  implied  in  vpE- 
itQa  (399-17). 

408. — 4.  Wh'en  the  relative  comes  after  two  words  of  differ- 
ent persons,  it  agrees  with  the  first  or  second  person  rather  than 
the  third ;  as,  eifil  tf  «/oo  fiadksvg  og  tipwpai. 

409. — 5V  When  the  relative  is  placed  between  two  substan- 
tives of  different  genders,  it  sometimes  agrees  in  gender  with  the 
latter;  as,  TO  aarQov  i\v  ovopd&vGiv  ^4iya,  the  constellation 
WHICH  they  call  the  GOAT. 

410. — 6.  Exc.  The  relative  sometimes  takes  the 
gender  and  number,  not  of  the  antecedent  noun, 
but  of  some  one  synonymous  with  it,  or  implied 

in  it ;  as, 

.  1st.  ftavovtow  rtxvwv  ovg  stdQacrog  iff  aye,  their  CHILD  REN 
having  died,  WHOM  Adrastus  led.  In  this  sentence,  ovg 
refers  to  nai'dajv,  as  synonymous  with  IMVWV. 

2d.  Tidvcwv  dv&Qcoacov  og  %i  aev  avn  IX#//,  OF  EVERY 
MAN,  WHO  shall  come  against  you  ;  where  og  in  the  sin- 
gular, referring  to  a  plural  antecedent,  shows  that  the 
men  are  spoken  of  in  the  relative  clause  individually. 

3d.  vnfQ  aTTaarjg  'Ekkddog  cov  nareQag  wruv^  for  all 
GREECE,  WHOSE  fathers  she  slew  ;  where  wv  refers  to  the 
meaning  of  'Ekkddog  in  this  sentence ;  i.  e.  the  men  of 
Greece. 

4th.  \)t]o~avQ07zoibg  dvijQ  ovg  dy  xai  inawsl  to  nlSftog,  A 
MAN  increasing  in  wealth,  WHOM  even  the  multitude  ap- 
plaud. Here,  though  the  antecedent  dvijQ  is  singular, 
the  relative  ovg  is  plural,  because  it  refers  not  to  an  indi- 
vidual man,  but  to  the  class  or  kind  of  men  spoken  of. 

411. — 7.  Instead  of  og  the  compound  pronoun  ocmg  is  used 
as  a  relative  after  nag,  ovdei'g,  or  any  word  in  the  singular  ex- 
pressing an  indefinite  number,  and  oo~oi  after  the  same  words  in 
the  plural ;  as,  nag  ocmg,  every  one  who  ;  ndvreg  OGOI,  all  who  ; 
and  if  the  indefinite  is  not  expressed  in  the  antecedent  clause, 
the  use  of  the  relative  sftows  that  it  is  understood,  and  is  to  be 
expressed  in  the  translation ;  as,  tag  noteig  OGCU,  all  the  cities 
which.  Sometimes  it  is  used  simply  for  og. 

412. — 8.  If  no  nominative  come  between  the  relative  and 
the  verb,  the  relative  will  be  the  nominative  to  the  verb. 


220  KELATIVE  PRONOUN.  §135. 

If  a  nominative  come  between  the  relative  and  the  verb,  the 
relative  will  be  of  that  case  which  the  verb  or  noun  following, 
or  the  preposition  going  before,  usually  governs.  But, 

Attraction  of  the  Relative. 

413. — 9.  Exo.  I.  The  relative  is  often  attracted 
into  the  case  of  its  antecedent ;  as, 

Examples.  1.  GVV  raig  vavalv  alg  (for  ag)  el%£,  with  the 
SHIPS  WHICH  he  had.  2.  ^eraa^erco  rijg  qdovtjg  ?/£  (for  qv) 
Idooxa  V[uv9  let  him  share  the  PLEASURE  WHICH  I  gave  you.  3. 
f4£iwi]y&o$  oo  v  STTQCC^S  (for  rtiv  ttfdypd&ew  a  'Ingots,  406-4th), 
being  mindful  of  WHAT  he  did.  4.  anokavw  cor  e%co  dya-0  tor, 
I  enjoy  WHAT  GOODS  I  have  (406-2d). 

Note  1.  The  rule  of  attraction  seems  to  have  its  foundation  alto- 
gether in  euphony ;  and  hence,  generally,  attractions  will  be  found  only 
where  they  improve  the  euphony  of  a  sentence. 

Note  2.  This  construction  is  sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  imi- 
tated in  Latin ;  as,  Girciter  sexcentas  ejus  generis  cujus  supra  demonstra- 
mmus,  naves  invenit.  C^ES.  See  Lat.  Gr.  298. 

414. — 10.  Exc.  II.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes 
v  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  ;  as, 

Jlkkov  d'  ov  rev  o7da  revav  xkvra  tev%8a  dvo)j  I  know  not 
any  other  person  whose  renowned  armour  I  could  put  on.  Here 
akhov  is  attracted  by  the  relative  rev  (for  TOV,  142,  used  for  oi>, 
186-2),  from  the  accusative  into  the  genitive.  Lat.  Gr.  299. 

On  this  principle  are  to  be  construed  such  sentences  as  the 
following:  ovdeva  xivftvvov  orriv'  ov%  vnspewav,  for  ovdeig 
ip  xivSvvog  ovriva,  there  was  no  DANGER  WHICH  they  did  not 
undergo;  ovdiva  syacav  OVTIV*  ov  daxQvovra  aTtocjrQs- 
cpeadai,  for  ovdeig  l\v  ovnv  syacav  ov  daxQvovra,  &c.  there  was 
NO  ONE  WHO,  they  said,  did  not  return  weeping  ;  rivag  roved* 
OQG)  ^Kvovg,  for  rivet;  eldiv  ovroi  oi  %evoi  ovg  OQG)  ;  who  are 
these  strangers  whom  I  see  ? 

415. — 11.  The  relative  plural,  and  in  all  its  cases  with  l<sil 
before  it,  is  used  for,  or  rather  is  the  original  form  of,  the  adjec- 
tive mot,  -ait  -«,  some  (lart  being  sometimes  written  en) ;  as, 
xal  ear i  o?  (i.e.  emoi)  zrvy%avov  ficoQaxcav,  and  SOME  hit 
breastplates;  ano  r<av  nokecov  eanv  wv  (i.e.  enow),  from 
SOME  cities. 

In  this  construction  lari  is  found  with  oartg,  both  -singular 
and  plural ;  as,  eari  oar  is,  some  one  ;  ecn  oinveg,  some. 


§136.  RELIED  ADJECTIVE   WORDS.  221 

416. — 12.  In  certain  cases,  it  is  used  adverbially,  some  other 
word  being  understood ;  thus,  ov,  where  ;  y,  where,  as  far  as, 
how,  in  what  manner  ;  and  sometimes  thus  used,  it  is  preceded 
by  am,  the  two  words  being  used  as  an  adverb ;  as,  eanv  ov  or 
sometimes,  in  some  places,  in  many  places. 


\ 


417.—  §136-  THE  EELATED  ADJECTIVE  WORDS 

OGOg,  7/A/XO£,  &C. 


1.  The  relative  adjectives  oiog,  oGog,  faixog,  like  the  relative 
pronoun,  always  refer  to  a  kindred  word  before  them  expressed 
or  understood,  implying  a  comparison  of  equality  similar  to  'talis 
qualis,  tantus  quantus,  in  Latin  (Lat.  Gr.  300)  ;  as,  4     , 

roiog  or  roiovrog  —  olog,  such  —  as. 
roGog  or  roGOvrog  —  OGog,  so  many-  —  as. 
rqtixog  —  jfLixog,  of  such  an  age  or  size  —  as. 

2.  The  antecedent  and  relative  adjectives  both  refer  to  the 
same  substantive,  with  which  they  agree  in  gender  and  number, 
while  each  takes  the  case  required  by  the  construction  of  the 
clause  in  which  it  stands  :  thus,  DEM.  Olynth.  I,  "  As  for  the 
rest  they  are  thieves  and  flatterers,  and  roiovrovg  dv&Qco- 
rtovg   oiovg   [te&vG&wrag  OQ%£IG&V.I   roiavra   oia  ly<n  vvv 
6x?c5  orofiaGai,  SUCH  MEN  AS,  when  intoxicated,  to  dance  SUCH 
DANCES  AS  /  dare  not  name. 

3.  The  antecedent  word  is  most  commonl/  understood,  and 
the  relative  is  translated  with  some  variety  according  to  the'  con- 
nection in  which  it  stands.     The  most  of  the  cases  in  which,  e.  g. 
oiog  is  used  for  roiovrog  oiog,  may  be  reduced  to  three  ;  viz.  1st, 
when  it  stands  before  a  substantive  ;  2d,  before  an  adjective  ;  3d, 
before  a  verb. 

4.  FIRST.  Before  a  substantive,  oiog  elegantly  takes  the  case 
in  which  its  antecedent  roiovrog  would  be,  if  expressed,   and 
changes  the  substantive   before  -which  it  stands  into  the  same 
case   by  attraction;   thus,    ovx    sariv  avdgl   oico   ^coxQarei, 
tysvdsG&cu,  to  lie  is  not  befitting  SUCH  A  MAN  AS  SOCRATES  is,  for 
ot-x  iartv  dvdQi  roiovr($  oiog  ^coxQaryg  'icnv  tyevdeGdai.   Again, 
%aQi£6[t8vov  oicp  GOI  dv$Qi,  gratifying  SUCH  A  MAN  AS  THOU 
ART,  for  dvdol  roiovrco  oiog  GV  (sig). 

in  some  instances  the  noun  after  oiog  is  not  attracted  into  the 


222          RELATED  ADJECTIVE  WORDS.       §  136. 

same  case  with  it ;  as,  vmv  (towvrcov)  OLCOVTZSQ  avrbg  ovzwv, 
tJiey  being  such  as  he. 

When  the  substantive  to  which  oiog  refers  is  obvious  from 
the  connection,  it  is  frequently  omitted,  as  in  the  preceding  ex- 
ample. 

5.  Sometimes  oiog,  with  the  clause  in  which  it  occurs,  is  ap- 
parently unconnected  with  the  sentence.     In  such  cases  the  con- 
nection is  to  be  formed  by  supplying  cot,*  or  on ;  as,  i[uxx&gi£o9 
irp  [AtjTeQa  (on)  oicov  TZXVWV  IxvQqoe,  they  blessed  the  mother 
(because)  *she  gave  birth  to  (lit.  became  possessed  of)  such  children. 

Of  a  similar  nature  are  the  Homeric  expressions  oi*  ayoQSvsig 
— o*5  sogyag,  i.  e.  on  oi\  <fec.  BECAUSE  you  say — BECAUSE  you 
do  such  things. 

6.  The  construction  is  the  same  when  oiog,  or  the  substantive 
to  which  it  belongs,  is  in  the  nominative,  or  is  governed  by  a 

...  *v  av       v  '  a        /<•'  \       > 

preposition;  as,  atyirsg  ayovrag  nwwog  (on  voiovrog)  oi,og 
avrovg  o  ftvvvog  die'cpvyevj  being  truly  grieved  because  SUCH  A 
THUNNY  FISH  AS  THIS  escaped  them,  Lucian ;  tlm&vreg  ndyyv 
aTtokseG&ai,  lg  o'ia  %axa  qxor,  i.  e.  (ag  Ig  roiavra  ola  xaxd, 
expecting  total  destruction  SINCE  they  were  come  into  SUCH  CALA- 
MITIES AS  THESE.  In  this  way  that  difficult  sentence  in  Thucy- 
dides  is  explained,  KOU  \JLOVKI  (scil.  Ji'&rp&ww  nokig)  OVTS  vco  TTO^E- 
pcp  BTiiik&ovn  ayavdxrrfiiv  fyei,  vcp  oiwv  xaxonadei,  i.  e.  cog 
vno  TOIOVTCOV  oicov  jjfteig,  and  we  are  now  the  only  state 
which  does  not  excite  indignation  in  an  invading  enemy,  BECAUSE 
(or  SINCE)  they  suffer  from  SUCH  A  BRAVE  PEOPLE  AS  WE  ARE. 

In  all  constructions  of  this  kind,  the  idea  will  be  readily  per- 
ceived by  considering  oiog  as  put  for  on  or  o>£  roiovtog.  See 
numerous  examples  in  L.  Bos.  Ellipses,  Gr.  271.  Vigerus,  Ch.  3. 
§8,9. 

7.  SECOND.  Before  an  adjective,\i  may  be  resolved  by  supply- 
ing the  infinitive  swcu;  as,  si  JAW  yaQ  ng  dvijQ  Iv  avzolg  sett 
oiog  sprteiQog  Ttohepov,  if  any  one  among  them  is  SKILFUL  IN 
WAR,  DEM.  O.  2.  for  roiovrog  oiog  EIVCU  fyftsiQog,  is  such  as  to  be 
skilful,  &c. ;  o*'o£  aQKjrog,  the  best,  for  roiovrog  oiog  slvai  CCQKJ- 
iog,  such  as  to  be  the  best,  &G. 

8.  Oiog  is  frequently,  however,  joined  with  an  adjective  in  the 
form  of  an  exclamation  'or  interrogation,  apparently  without  re- 
ference to  the  usual  antecedent ;  as,  oiog  juifyag,  oiog  %ahe7zog', 
how  great !  how  difficult  !     Thus  Lysias,  oiog  fieyag  y,ai  dswbg 
v.ivo'vvog  rflwviG&rjj  how  great  and  terrible  danger  was  risked 
(scil.  for  the  liberty  of  Greece).     If  this  and  similar  sentences, 
however,  are  thrown  into  the  assertive  form,  they  readily  admit 


§  137.        CONSTRUCTION   OF  NOMINATIVE  CASE.  223 

of  the  same  resolution  as  the  others ;  thus,  danger  such  as  to  be 
great  and  terrible  was  risked. 

9.  THIRD.  Joined  with  the  verb  dpi  expressed  or  understood, 
and  followed  by  an  infinitive,  it  signifies  "  I  am  of  such  a  kind 
as,  or  such  as  ;"  and,  according  to  the  connection  in  which  it 
stands,  may  mean  " / am  able"  " / am  wont"  " / am  ready,  or 
wilting" — zoiovrog  being  always  understood  as  an  antecedent 
word]  thus,  ov  yaQ  qv  olog  ano  Ttavtog  xegdavai  (i.e.  IOLOV- 
iog  oio$),  FOR  HE  WAS  NOT  (SUCH)  AS  to  make  gain  from  every 
thing  ;  i.  e.  he  was  not  willing  (or  inclined)  to  do  every  thing  for 
the  sake  of  gain. 

10.  The  abbreviated  expressions  olog  el[u,  and  olog  v  sifu,  art> 
Very  common,  and  usually,  but  not  always,  observe  this  distinc- 
tion ;  viz.,  that  the  former  signifies  " / am  wont"  the  latter,  " / 
am  able,  I  can"  and  is  equivalent  to  dvvaficu  ;  as,  olog  r    el  pi 
VOVTO  TioitiVy  I  can  do  this. — In  the  neuter,  it  is  used  imperson- 
ally ;  as,  oiov  re  lew,  it  is  possible. 

11.  Sometimes  the  verb '  d\d  is  also  omitted;  as,  J/  dvvairo 
dxovew^x  TOV  ^fc//  01  owe  (etvai),  or  whether  he  cquld  hear 

FROM  NOT  BEING  ABLE  TO  HEAR  FORMERLY. 

12.  In  the  same  manner  roiog  or  toiovrog  stands  related  to 
olog  following  it,  expressed  or  understood  ;  as,  ovx  av  bfidtjGaifu 
roiovrq?  (scil.  olog  avrog  acrTi),  I  would  have  no  intercourse  with 
SUCH  A  MAN  (scil.  as  he  is). 

13.  The  neuters  oiov  and  ola,  either  alone  or  combined  with 
various  particles,  and  used  in  a  conjunctive  or  'adverbial  sense, 
are,  no  doubt,  elliptical  expressions  similar  to  those  noticed  above, 
though  it  may  be  difficult  to  resolve  many  of  them  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner.     The  ordinary  meaning  of  these  words  will  be 
found  in  the  Lexicons. 

4 1 8 — Note.  The  observations  which  have  been  made  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  related  adjectives  TOI&;  or  toffouroq— ofog,  are^applica- 
ble,  almost  without  exception,  to  IOGOS  or  roffovroq — oVo? ;  observing 
that  the  former  relates  to  the  quality  of  objects,  the  latter  to  their 
number  or  quantity.  The  same  also  may  be  said  of  rtjUxoq — qiixoq,  of 
such  an  age  or  size. 


§137.   CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE. 

/       419. — The  nominative  case 'is  used — 

1st.  To  express  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 
2d.  In  apposition  with  another  substantive  in  the  nomina 
tive  (365),  or  predicated  of  it  (436,  438). 


224  VERB   WITH   ITS  NOMINATIVE.       .         §  138. 

3d.  In  exclamations ;  as,  00  dvcrdkawa,  iyco  !  0  wretched 
me  ! 

4th.  Absolutely,  or  without  dependence  on  any  word  in  the 
sentence  (772) ;  as,  sroH//  yaQ  q  aiQaria  ovaa,  ov 
nvLGrig  SGTCU  nofecog  vaode^aG&ai  (avTi]v),  for  the  ARMY 
BEING  NUMEROUS,  it  will  not  be  in  the  power  o/"  tjie  whole 
state  to  accommodate  them.  Or  without  a  participle,  by 
pleonasm  before  an  affirmation  ;  as,  6  Mw  vcqg  ovx  01- 
dapev  ri  ytyovsv  avtcp,  THIS  MOSES,  we  know  not  what 
has  become  of  him. 


§  138.  A  VERB  WITH  ITS  NOMINATIVE. 

420. — RULE  IV.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  nomi- 
native in  number  and  person ;  as, 

«yo3  yQacpa,  I  write.  m 

rv'TTrsrs,  ye  strike. 

kpG)  kdpTieror,  his  eyes  shine. 

421. — Rem.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  if  a  noun  or  pronoun,  or 
adjective  used  as  a  noun,  is  put  in  the  nominative.  The  subject  may 
also  be  an  infinitive  mood  (719),  or  part  of  a  sentence  ;  and  to  all  these 
this  rule  applies. 

422. —  Obs.  1.  The  nominative  of  the  first  and  of  the  second 
person  is  generally  omitted,  being  obvious  from  the  termination 
of  the  verb ;  also  of  the  third  person,  when  it  may  be  readily 
supplied  from  the  context ;  as,  A/yovoY,  they  say. 

423. —  Obs.  2.  The  subject  is  also  omitted,  when  the  verb  ex- 
presses an  action  usually  performed  by  that  subject ;  as,  Gakni- 
£ei,  the  trumpeter  sounds ;  IxtjQv^e,  the  herald  proclaimed  ;  or 
when  it  expresses  an  operation  of  nature ;  as,  vsi,  it  rains  ;  ^QOV- 
ta,  it  thunders. 

424. —  Obs.  3.  Impersonal  verbs  are  usually  considered  as 
without  a  nominative ;  still  they  will  generally  be  found  to  bear 
a  relation  to  some  circumstance,  sentence,  clause  of  a  sentence, 
or  infinitive  mood,  similar  to  that  between  a  verb  and  its  nomi- 
native ;  as,  e^sGTi  \JLOI  dmwai,  it  is  lawful  for  me  to  depart,  i.  e. 
to  depart  is  lawful  for  me  ;  %QIJ  as  TIOIBW,  it  behoves  you  to  do 
it,  i.  e.  to  do  it  behoves  you.  Lat.  Gr.  307. 

Note. — On  the  other  hand,  the  subject  or  nominative  is  some- 
times expressed,  and  the  verb — usually  some  part  of  the  verb 
elvai — is  omitted  ;  as,  "Ektyv  iya,  I  (am)  a  Greek. 


§  139.  VERB   WITH  ITS  NOMINATIVE.  225 

§  139.  SPECIAL  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS. 
I.  Agreement  in  number. 

425. — RULE  1.  A  neuter  plural  commonly  has 
a  verb  in  the  singular  ;  as, 

foocc  rQ£%£i,  animals  run. 

426. —  Obs.  1.  This  construction  is  more  common  with  the 
Attic  than  with  the  Ionic  and  Doric  writers.  But  with  all,  there 
are  many  exceptions,  especially  when  the  neuter  plural  signifies 
persons  or  animals ;  as,  toad8e  Idvrj  larQarevov,  so  many  na- 
tions went  to  war.  Homer  joins  a  singular  and  a  plural  verb 
with  the  same  nominative.  Odyss.  ^  43.  So  Xen.  Mem. 
actQa  dvetyrfvav  a  i\\iiv  tag  WQag  irtg  vvxrbg  Ipyavi^et, 
the  STARS  SHONE  FORTH,  WHICH  SHEW  to  us  the  hours  of  the 
night,  g 

427. —  Obs.  2.  Sometimes,  also,  masculine  and  feminine  nouns 
in  the  dual  and  plural  have  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  as,  o  v  x 
SGrlv  QiTiVKZ  uni%owcu,  THERE  ARE  NONE  who  abstain; 
d%eirai  6pq>al  pdscov,  the  voice  of  melody  sounds. 

428.— RULE  2.  Two  or  more  substantives  sin- 
gular, taken  together,  have  a  verb  in  the  plural ; 
taken  separately,  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singu- 
lar ;  as, 

Together,  aldwg  ds  V.VLI  yofiog  epcpv-  Shame  and  fear  are  na- 
roi  ei(H  dv&QWTTcp,  tural  to  man. 

Separately,  $ol  yaQ  tdooxe  vixtff  Zevg  For  Jupiter  and  Apollo 
xal  ^Tiokkcov,  gave  you  ike  victory. 

429. —  Obs.  3.  To  both  parts  of  this  rule,  however,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  first,  there  are  not  a  few  exceptions ;  for  it  often 
happens  that  when  two  or  more  nouns  have  a  common  verb,  it 
agrees  with  one  of  them,  and  most  commonly  the  one  next  it. 
Also,  if  the  two  nouns  are  of  similar  signification,  they  are  in 
construction  considered  as  one,  and  the  verb  follows  in  the  sin- 
gular;  as,  Zol  $  lal  ro^drGi  xaQdiq  xai  &vpo<;,  let  your 
HEART  and  SOUL  dare.  - 

430. —  Obs.  4.  A  substantive  in  the  singular,  connected  with 
other  words  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  conveying  the  idea  of  plu- 
rality, has  the  verb  in  the  plural ;  as,  'Pea  rtaoahaBovaa  xai 

10* 


226  VERB   WITH   ITS   NOMINATIVE.  §  139. 

rovg  KoQvfiavrag  fisotffrohovffw,  Rhea,  having  token  with  her  also 
the  Cofybantes,  wandered  about.  So  in  Latin ;  as,  Juba  cum 
Labieno  capti  in  potestatem  Ccesaris  venissent.  Lat.  Gr.  314. 

431. — RULE  3.  A  noun,  of  multitude  expressing 
many  as  one  whole  has  a  verb  in  the  singular  ;  as, 

s^ero  haog,  the  people  sat  down. 

432. — But  when  it  expresses  many  as  individu- 
als, the  verb  must  be  plural;  as, 

tjQcorqGav  avrov  TO  7Tk7]\)o£,          the  multitude  asked  him. 

433. —  Obs.  5.  To  both  parts  of  this  rule  there  are  also  ex- 
ceptions, and  in  some  cases  it  seems  indifferent  whether  the  verb 
be  in  the  singular  or  plural ;  sometimes  both  are  joined  with  the 
same  nominative  ;  as,  e£ero  labg,  SQqrv&qGav  ds  xafi{d()ag, 
the  people  SAT  DOWN  and  KEPT  THEIR  SEATS. 

434. — RULE  4.  A  dual  nominative  may  have  a 
plural  verb  ;  as, 

apqico  sksyor,  both  spake  ;  and  a  plural  nominative,  limited  to 
two,  may  have  a  verb  in  the  dual. 

II.  Agreement  in  Person. 

435. — KULE  5.  When  two  or  more  nominatives  are  of  differ- 
ent persons,  the  verb  takes  the  first  person  rather  than  the  sec- 
ond, and  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  as,  lyeb  KOLI  GV  slno- 
per,  you  and  I  spoke. 

To  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions. 

III.  The  Nominative  after  the  Verb. 

436. — KULE  6.  Any  verb  may  have  the  same 
case  after  it  as  before  it  when  both  words  refer  to 
the  same  thing  ;  as, 

vpeig  lars  TO  (pots  rov  xocpov,  YE  are  the  LIGHT  of  the  world. 

437. — Hem.  The  nominative  before  is  the  subject,  the  nominative  after 
the  predicate — the  verb  is  the  copula,  and  is  either  a  substantive  or  intran- 
sitive verb,  or  a  passive  verb  of  naming — from  its  use  called  copulative. 

438. —  Obs.  6.  This  rule  applies  to  the  infinitive  whatever  be 
the  case  of  its  subject;  also  to  participles,  738  and  752. 


§  140.  GOVERNMENT.  227 

439. —  Obs.  7.  When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective  or  a  parti- 
ciple, without  a  substantive,  it  agrees  with  the  subject  before  the 
verb,  by  R.  II : — Except  as  noticed,  378. 

440. —  Obs.  8.  In  this  construction,  the  verb  usually  agrees 
with  the  subject ;  sometimes,  however,  it  agrees  with  the  predi- 
cate ;  as,  IIGCLV  §\  crddioi  OXTG*  TO  (t£Ta(%[uov  avreow,  the  space 
between  them  was  eight  stadia.  So  also  when  the  copula  is  a 
participle ;  as,  he  usually  let  go,  tovg  pfyicra  ^r^iaQtr^oxag — 
f&yiarqy  ds  ovoar  (for  ovrag]  fikdfiqv  aofowg,  the  greatest 
offenders  BEING  (or  who  are)  the  greatest  INJURY  to  the  state. 


§140.  II.  GOVERNMENT. 

441. — GOVERNMENT  is  the  power  which  one  word  has  over 
another  depending  upon  it,  requiring  .it  to  be  put  in  a  certain 
case,  mood,  or  tense. 

THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   CASES. 

442. — The  construction  of  the  oblique  cases  depends  in  gen- 
eral upon  the  following  principles ;  viz. 

1.  The   Genitive  expresses  that  from  which  any  thing  pro- 
ceedsr  originates,  or  begins  ;  or  to  which  it  belongs,  as  expressed 
by  the   English   words  of,  from,  in  regard  of,  in  respect  of}  &c. 
viz.  as  cause  or  origin. 

2.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  acquisition,  and  denotes  that  to 
which  any  thing  is  added,  or  to  or  for  which  it  is  done  ;  hence 
the  end  or  remote  object  to  which  any  action  tends.     It  is  also 
used  to  express  the  cause,  instrument,  or  means,  by  which  a  thing 
is  done,  in  which  sense  it  usually  depends  on  a  preposition  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

3.  The  Accusative  expresses  the  immediate  object  on  which  the 
action  or  influence  of  a  transitive  active  verb  terminates ;  or  ot 
motion  or  tendency  to,  expressed  by  a  preposition. 

4^  The  action  pf  a  verb  may  be  considered  in  reference  either, 
1.  to  its  immediate  object,  i.e.  to  that  on  which  its  action  is  im- 
mediately exerted,  and  which  is  always  governed  in  the  accusa 
tive;  as,  didovcu  Ipavtov,  to  give  myself ;  or,  2.  to  a  remote  ob- 
ject (i.  e.  to  one  which  is  not  acted  upon  by  the  verb,  but  is 
merely  that  to  which  the  action  is  related  in  the  manner  ex- 
pressed by  the  case),  and  is  put  in  the  genitive,  or  dative,  or  ac- 
cusative, either  after  the  accusative  with  a  transitive  active  verb, 
or  without  an  accusative  after  an  intransitive  verb  ;  as,  dnafadt- 


228  THE   GENITIVE.  §141. 

TSIV  nva  voaov,  to  free  one  from  disease ;  didovcu  i^avrov  rij 
Ttokei,  to  give  myself  to  the  state  ;  cpeldea&ai  rav  fQicpcov,  to  spare 
the  kids;  @ot]&ew  rfj  naTQidi,  to  aid  (i.e.  to  render  assistance  to) 
my  country. 


§141.  THE  GENITIVE. 

443. — The  Genitive  is  in  extensive  use  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, being  used  in  many  cases  in  which  the  Ablative  is  used 
in  Latin.  Its  primary,  as  well  as  its  general  and  leading  idea,  is 
that  of  separation  or  abstraction,  going  forth  from,  or  out  of,  ori- 
gin, cause.  So  that  the  meaning  of  the  words  of,  out  of,  from, 
is  implied  in  the  case  itself. 

The  numerous  and  diversified  uses  of  this  case  are  reduced  by  Mat- 
thise  to  the  following  heads  : 

444. — I.  In  Greek,  words  of  all  kinds  may  be  followed  by  other 
words  in  the  genitive,  when  the  latter  class  limits,  and  shews  in  what 
respect  the  meaning  of  the  former  is  to  be  taken.  When  used  for  this 
purpose,  they  may  usually  be  rendered  by  such  phrases  as  "with  re- 
spect to"  "  in  respect  of ;"  thus, 

1.  With  verbs;  as,  ox;  nodwv  d/ov,  as  fast  as  they  could  run,  lit. 
as  they  had  themselves  WITH  RESPECT  TO  THEIR  FEET;  xcdwc;  s/fw  /te^-^c;, 
to  have  one's  self  well  WITH  RESPECT  TO  INTOXICATION;  GffdU.ta&ai,  D.ni- 
doq,  to  be  deceived  WITH  RESPECT  TO  HOPE  ;  xcttectya,  tijq  x f  y> a  1  rj c; ,  / am 
broken  WITH  RESPECT  TO  MY  HEAD,  i.  e.  /  have  broken  my  head. 

2.  With  adjectives ;  ffvyyy&t/iwv  to)v  a,v&QO)7ilvwv  a^aQT^^d- 
twv,  forgiving  WITH  RESPECT  TO  HUMAN  ERRORS;  syyvq  r^q  nohiws, 
near  with  RESPECT  TO  THE  CITY  ;  yq  nhla,  xanwv,   a  land  full  OF  (i.e. 
WITH  RESPECT  TO)  EVILS;  fteifov  naT^o^,  greater  THAN  (i.  e.  WITH  RE- 
SPECT TO)  HIS  FATHER. 

3.  With  all  words  which  represent  a  situation  or  operation  of  the 
mind,  which  is  directed  to  an  object,  but  without  affecting  it;  such  as 
verbs  signifying  to  remember,  to  forget,  to  neglect,  &c. ;  and  adjectives  sig- 
nifying experienced,  ignorant,  desirous,  <fcc. 

4.  With  all  words  which  indicate  fulness,  defect,  emptiness,  and  the 
like.     Under  this  head  fall  adjectives  signifying  full,  rich,  empty,  de- 
prived of,  <fec. :  and  adverbs  denoting  abundance,  icant,  sufficiency,  <fcc. 

5.  To  this  principle  must  be  referred  the  constiruction  of  the  geni- 
tive with  the  comparative  degree,  482 ;  with  all  words  denoting  superi- 
ority, inferiority,  and  where  a  comparison  is  made  with  respect  to  the 
value  of  a  thing ;  as,  a&oq  tovrov,  worthy  of  this,  i.  e.  equal  in  value 
WITH  RESPECT  TO  THIS  ;  or  where  the  idea  of  difference  is  involved. 

6.  When  that  with  respect  to  which  a  thing  is  done  may  also  be  con- 
sidered the  cause  of  its  being  done,  the  word  expressing  it  is  often  put 
in  the  genitive,  and  may  be  rendered  "on  account  of;"  as,  qsOovtlv 
iwl  o~oq>i,a<;,to  envy  one  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  WISDOM.     Hence  it  is  used  with 
verbs  signifying  to  accuse,  or  criminate,  to  pray,  to  begin,  &c. ;  and  also, 
without  another  word,  in  exclamations. 


§142.     GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY  SUBSTANTIVES.         229 

445. — IT.  The  genitive  in  Greek  is  used  to  express  the  relation  of 
a  whole  to  its  parts ;  i.  e.  it  is  put  partitively.  Hence  it  is  put  with 
verbs  of  all  kinds,  even  with  those  that  govern  the  accusative,  when  the 
action  does  not  refer  to  the  whole,  but  to  a  part ;  as,  onttjffat,  xotoJv, 
to  roast  SOME  OF  THE  FLESH;  iyo)  oidce  ttiv  l/uwv  ^yUxt-wrwv,  / know 
SOME  OF  THOSE  OF  MY  AGE.  Hence,  also,  it  is  put  with  verbs  which  sig- 
nify to  share,  to  participate,  <fcc. 

On  this  principle  is  founded,  the  construction  of  the  genitive  of  the 
part  affected,  after  verBs  signifying  to  take,  to  seize,  to  touch,  <fec.  Hence, 
also,  it  is  put  with  the  superlative  degree,  to  express  the  class  of  which 
that  one,  or  those  marked  by  the  superlative,  form  a  part. 

446. — HI.  The  genitive  is  used  to  mark  the  origin,  or  cause  from 
which  any  thing  proceeds ;  and  hence,  the  person  or  thing  to  which 
any  thing  belongs,  whether  it  be  a  property,  or  quality,  habit,  duty,  &c. 
Hence,  also,  verbs  govern  the.  genitive,  which  express  feelings  and  op- 
erations of  the  mind,  which  are  the  result  of  external  impressions,  or 
when  they  denote  motions  and  actions  in  bodies  which  are  the  effects  of 
the  operation  of  other  bodies.  Thus,  verbs  which  express  the  sensa- 
tions of  hearing,  tasting,  touching,  <fec.  as  well  as  those  which  signify  to 
admire,  to  care  for,  to  desire,  <fec.  are  followed  by  the  genitive  of  the  ob- 
ject heard,  tasteoV  touched,  admired,  or  cared  for,  because  it  is  viewed 
as  the  source,  origin,  or  *:cause,  of  these  sensations  and  operations. 
Hence,  also,  the  common  rules,  that  "  verbs  denoting  possession,  prop- 
erty, or  duty,  <fec.  govern  the  genitive ; "  that  "  the  material  of  which 
any  thing  is  made  is  put  in  the  genitive ; "  and  that  "  one  substantive 
governs  another  in  the  genitive" 

447. — IV.  The  genitive  is  also  governed  by  certain  prepositions, 
.  and  by  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  ;  that  is  to  say,  when  the 
prepositions  may  be  separated  from  the  verb  and  placed  before  the 
genitive  without  altering  the  sense. 

448 — V.  The  genitive  is  used  to  determine  place  and  time  in  an- 
swer to  the  question  "where?"  "when?"  &c.  Hence  the  adverbs  ov, 
TioT'f  oTiov,  where,  which  are,  in  fact,  old  genitives,  and  refer  to  part  of 
place  or  time  in  general. 

To  the  general  principles  contained  in  these  five  heads,  may  be  re- 
ferred all  the  cases  which  occur  under  all  the  following  rules  for  the 
genitive. 


§  142.  I.  THE    GENITIVE    GOVERNED    BY    SUBSTAN- 
•       TIVES. 

449. — RULE  V.  One  substantive  governs  an- 
other in  the  genitive,  when  the  latter  substantive 
limits  the  signification  of  the  former ;  as, 

6  dew  aarqQ,  the  father  of  gods. 

,  Jdng  of  men. 


230          GENITIVE   GOVERNED   BY   SUBSTANTIVES.    §142. 

450 — This  rule  is  founded  on  the  general  principle  mentioned  444 
and  446.  In  the  examples  above,  the  general  term  TtarrJQ  is  restricted 
by  the  word  &to>v  governed  by  it.  It  is  not  any  father,  nor  the  father 
of  men,  but  of  gods  :  so  ava£,  not  any  king,  but,  the  king  of  men. 

When  a  noun  is  restricted  by.another  of  the  same  signification,  it  is 
put  in  the  same  case  by  Rule  I.  (365). 

451. —  Obs.  1.  The  noun  governing  the  genitive  is  frequently 
understood  (367);  viz.  1.  after  the  article  such  words  as  viog, 
p'jTtjQ,  -  ftvydryQ,  &c.  ;  as,  Mifoiddyg  o  Ki^vog  (sup.  viog), 
Miltiades,  the  SON  of  Cimon ;  ra  tijg  wxy$  (SUP-  SwQtfaaza), 
the  GIFTS  of  fortune.  2.  Olxog  or  d&fia  after  a  preposition;  -as, 
eg  TiarQog  (sup.  £«/*«),  to  the  house  of  her  father  ;  eig  adov 
(Sopor),  to  Hades;  iv  adov  (#o/iQ)),  in  Hades.  3.  After  the 
verbs  t/p,  yivopaii  vtidQ^to,  &c.  See  491  and  446. 

,  452. —  Obs.  2.  When  the  noun  in  the  genitive  signifies  a  per- 
son, it  may  often  be  taken  in  an  active  or  passive  sense  ;  thus,  // 
yv&Gig  tov  &sov,  the  knowledge  of  God.  In  this  sentence,  God 
may  be  either  the  subject  or  the  object  of  the  knowledge  spoken 
of,  i.  e.  the  phrase  may  denote  our  knowledge  of  God,  or  his 
knowledge  of  us  ;  no&og  viov,  generally  (not  the  regret  of  thy 
son,  viz.  which  he  has,  but)  regret  FOR  THY  SON  ;  avdpog  wpsv&a 
toiovde,  good  will  TOWARDS  such  a  man.  Lat.  Gr.  334. 

453. — This  passive  sense  of  the  genitive  is  more  common 
when  the  governing  noun  is  derived  from  a  verb  which  usually 
governs  the  dative,  and  when  the  one  substantive  is  in  one  sense 
the  cause,  and  in  another  the  object,  of  that  which  is  expressed 
by  the  other  substantive;  as,  vegregcov  dcoQtjpaTa,  offerings 
(not  q/J  but)  TO  THE  DEAD;  evffiara  nakkcidog, prayers  TO 
PALLAS;  ?}  rwv  Ilkaraiswv  STtiGrQareia,  the  march  AGAINST 
THE  PLATJSANS. 

454. — Nouns  thus  derived,  however,  are  more  frequently  fol- 
lowed bv  the  dative  ;  as,  i]  MOVGSCQV  docig  av&QWTioiGi,  the 
gift  of  me  Muses  TO  MEN  ;  sometimes  by  the  preposition  elg  with 
the  accusative ;  as,  ftswv  slg  dv&QcoTTovg  doGig,  518. 

455. —  Obs.  3.  Many  substantives  derived  from  words  which 
govern  the  genitive,  are  often  followed  b*y  a  genitive  governed  by 
the  force  of  the  primitive  contained  in  the  derivative  ;  thus,  Ikev- 
deQog  TIQVOV  (466),  free  from  labour  ;  hence,  &€V&eQia  novov, 
freedom  from  labour;  xQarew  rfiovwv  (511),  to  be  superior  to 
pleasures ;  fyxgaveta  qdovwv,  mastery  over  or  moderation  in 
pleasures  ;  axpareia  ?/iWoj^,  subjection  to  or  want  of  moderation 
in  pleasures  ;  em^ovQt^a  rrtg  yiovog,  protection  against  the  snow. 


§142.     GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY  SUBSTANTIVES.         231 

456.  —  Obs.  4.  Sometimes  the  genitive  after  a  substantive  is 
governed  not  so  properly  by  the  substantive  as  by  a  preposition 
understood.  These  generally  express  the  material  of  which  a 
thing  is  made,  or  the  author  or  source  from  which  it  proceeds 
(617)  ;  as,  crsqiavog  («£)  dv&spcov,  a  crown  of  flowers  ;  %a).xov 
dyakfia  (scil.  £x),  a  helmet  of  brass  ;  ntv&og  (dno)  daipovcov, 
grief  sent  from  the  gods  ;  (vcp)  "ifQag  dkateiat,  wanderings  caused 
by  Juno. 

Note.  In  this  way,  perhaps,  the  examples,  Obs.  3  (455),  may  be  re- 
solved ;  as,  Ifcv&tg&c  cbro  noyov.  • 


457.  —  Obs.  5.*A  noun  in  the  genitive,  after  another  of  the 
same  kind,  denotes  either  the  highest  pre-eminence,  or  the  lowest 
inferiority  ;  as,  fiaGihei  fiaaikzcov,  to  the  king  of  kings  ;  dovkog 
dovkcov,  a  slave  of  slaves. 

458.  —  Obs.  6.  A  number  of  substantives  followed  by  the  gen- 
itive of  a  noun,  or  by  a  possessive  adjective  formed  frem  it,  are 
often  put,  by  a  kind  of  circumlocution,  for  the  noun  itself.     The 
chief  of  these  are,  fiia,   i'g,  [te'vog,  strength  ;   x^(>,   the  heart  ; 
yofiog,  fear  ;  TieiQag,  T&og,  T&zvzt],  the  end  ;  dt'fiag,  a  body  ; 
xccQa,  xaQtjvov,  xeqpaA//,  the  head,  &c.  ;   as,  fila  KdcroQog,  for 
KdffrwQ,  Castor  ;  jtti]  '//joaxLya^,  for  'HQaxkygj  Hercules  ;  r&og 
ftavdrov,  for  ftdvavog,  death  ;  'loxdGTqg  xuQa,  for  'loxdarq. 

459.  —  065.  7.  Sometimes  one  substantive  governs  two  differ- 
ent genitives  in  different  relations  ;  as,  vn&WB  rav  'Icovav  rip 
fflspjwirp  tov  TtQog  ^CCQBIOV  n  ok  spov,  he  assumed  the  leading 
OF  THE  IONIANS  IN  THE  WAR  against  Darius  ;  rwv  oixsionv 
rt()07zr]kay.io~ei.g  rov  y^Qcog,  insults  OF  RELATIONS  TO  OLD  AGE. 

460.  —  Obs.  8.  The  Attics  use  a  noun  in  the  genitive,  preceded 
by  a  neuter  article,  for  the  noun  itself;  as,  TO  rijg  Tv%ijg  for  /} 
rv%q,  fortune  ;  rd  rav  @aQ@d()G)v  (for  ol  fiaQpaQOi)  dmard 
Ion,  THE  BARBARIANS  are  not  to  be  trusted. 


461. — RULE  VI.  An  adjective  or  article  in  the 
neuter  gender,  without  a  substantive,  governs  the 
genitive ;  as, 

to  noW.bv  Ttjg  6TQant]g,  the  greatest  part  of  the  army. 
Ta  Tijg  Tv%i]g,  the  gifts  of  fortune^ 

462. —  Obs.  9.  The  adjective  in  the  neuter  gender  is  either  it- 
self considered  as  a  substantive  (390),  or  as  "having  a  substantive 
understood,  which  is  pifeperly  the  governing  word. 


232  GENITIVE   GOVERNED   BY  ADJECTIVES.        §143. 

463.  —  RULE  VII.  A  substantive  added  to  ano- 
ther, to  express  a  quality  or  circumstance  belong- 
ing to  it,  is  put  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 

g,  a  man  of  great  virtue. 


464.  —  Obs.  10.  The  substantive  in  the  genitive  has  commonly 
an  adjective  with  it,  as  in  the  example  above,  but  sometimes  not  ; 
as,  ftokepog  ovx  on'Lwv  d^d  danavfig^a  war,  NOT  OF  WEA- 

PONS, but  OF  MONEY.    »But, 

465.  —  Obs.  11.  The  substantive  expressing  the  quality  or  cir- 
cumstance of  another,  is  more  commonly  put  in  the  accusative 
governed  by  Hard  or  did  expressed  or  understood  ;  as, 

tov  TQOTIOV,  a  man  of  ingenuous  DISPOSITION. 


§  143.  THE  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES. 

466.  —  RULE  VIII.  Verbal  adjectives,  and  such 
as  signify  an  affection  or  operation  of  the  mind, 
govern  the  genitive  ;  as, 


hurtful  to  men. 
povGixijg,      '  skilled  in  music. 

467.  —  Rem.  The  principle  on  which  this  rule  is  founded  is  con- 
tained in  444-1.  1,  2.     But  others  suppose  that  the  foundation  of  the 
principle,  as  well  as  of  the  rule,  is  to  be  sought  in  the  ellipsis  of  a  pre- 
position,  such  as  Tttgi,  which  is  sometimes  expressed  ;  as,   Tifyi  TMV 
re/vow  ini,GTJ]t,io)v,  skilled  in  the  arts.     However  plausible  this  supposi- 
tion may  be,  it  militates  strongly  against  it  that  we  have  the  same 
rule  in  Latin  in  which  there  is  no  preposition  that  governs  the  geni- 
tive.    The  stronger  probability  is,  that  the  rule  in  both  languages  is 
to  be  referred  to  the  same  general  principle  already  mentioned. 

468.  —  Under  this  rule  are  comprehended, 

1.  Adjectives  denoting  action  or  capacity,  which  are  derived 
from  verbs,  or  corresponding  to  them,  especially  those  in  iog9 
wog,  and  riQiog. 

2.  Many  adjectives  compounded  with  a  privative  (327-1,  1st)  ; 
as,  d&eatog  Y.UA,  avt^oog  dTrdvrow,  without  seeing  or  hearing  of 
any  thing. 

3.  Participles  used  in  an  adjective  \ense,  especially  among 


§  143.       GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY   ADJECTIVES-  233 


the  poets  ;  as,  Ttsyvflu'vog  ae^cov,  free  from  troubles  ^  oiowwv 
eldcog,  skilled  in  augury. 

Note.  These,  however,  are  often  followed  by  the  accusative  ;  as, 
ia,  skilled  in  wickedness. 


4.  Adjectives  expressing  a  state  or  operation  of  mind  ;  as,  de- 
sfre,  aversion,  care,  knowledge,  ignorance,  memory,  forgetfulness, 
profusion,  parsimony,  and  the  like. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from,  or  of  a  similar  signification  with 
verbs  which  govern  the  genitive  ;  as,  4ftMOVQog  tyv%ovg,  GXOTOV,  ' 
K.  r.  A.  serviceable  against  cold,  darkness,  &c. 


469.  —  RULE  IX.    Adjectives  signifying  plenty 
or  want,  <fec.,  govern  the  genitive  (444-4)  ;  as, 


,  full  of  confusion. 

drdQwv,  destitute  of  men. 

470.  —  Under  this  rule  are  comprehended, 

1.  Adjectives  of  fulness,  plenty,  and  want;  value,  dignity, 
worth,  and  the  contrary. 

2.  Adjectives  expressive  of  poioer,  eminence,  superiority,  and 
their  opposites  ;  also,  of  participation,  diversity,  separation,  pecu- 
liarity, or  property,  and  the  like. 

3.  Adjectives  followed  by  the  genitive  of  the  cause  ;  as,  a&hbg 

g,  miserable  on  account  of  fortune. 


471.  —  Note.  Adjectives  of  plenty  and  want  sometimes  govern  the 
dative;  as,  ayvtibq  /Liijlou;,  abounding  in  fruits. 


472.  —  RULE  X.  Partitives,  and  words  placed 
partitively,  comparatives,  superlatives,  interroga- 
tives,  indefinites,  and  some  numerals,  govern  the 
genitive  plural  ;  as, 


1.  iwv  av&QcoTTwv  ol  \ilv  Gocpol,       of  the  men  SOME  were  wise, 

oid    ov,  OTHERS  not. 

2.  of  Ttakcuol  iwv  notrjrwv,  the  ancient  poets. 

3.  ev  var  filmcov,  one  of  the  ships. 

4.  TTQwrog  Aftrjvaiwv,  the  first  of  the  Athenians. 

5.  6  vewreQog  rwv  dde'kcpwv,  the  younger  of  the  brothers. 

6.  s%&ujTog  fiaGikscov,  most  hated  of  kings. 


234  GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES.       §143. 

473. — Rem.  For  the  principle  of  this  rule^see  445.  It  has  alsc 
been  supposed  that  the  genitive  under  this  rule  is  properly  governed 
by  ex  or  cbro.  The  same  remark  made  467  is  also  applicable  here,  and 
for  the  same  reason;  viz.  that  the  same  rule  holds  in  Latin,  which  has 
no  preposition  governing  the  genitive. 

474. —  Obs.  1.  All  words  are  denominated  partitives  which 
express  a  part  of  any  number  or  class  of  objects,  the  whole  beiri£ 
expressed  by  the  noun  following  it  in  the  genitive. 

475. —  Obs.  2.  The  genitive  after  the  partitive  is  sometimes, 
governed  by  the  preposition  Ix  or  e%  ;  as,  «£  anaGcav  r\  KaXUd&lf, 
the  most  beautiful  of  all : — and  sometimes,  instead  of  the  geni- 
tive, there  is  found  a  preposition  with  another  case ;  as,  turfMan] 
iv  ratg  ywai£l9  fairest  among  women  ;  so  in  Latin,  justissimus 
in  Teucris.  Lat.  Gr.  360. 

476. —  Obs.  3.  Instead  of  the  genitive,  the  case  of  the  partitive 

,.  r      &  /-]  \          \       >^ , 

is   sometimes   used ;    as,  rovg  cpikovg  rove    \ii-v    aTisxreiM;, 

SOME  OF  HIS  FRIENDS  he  slew. 

477. —  Obs.  4.  The  partitives  rig  and  eig  are  sometimes 
omitted ;  as,  cpSQGo  GDI  Gtokqv  T&V  xa'L'kiGTtov  (sc.  piav),  1 
bring  you  A  VERY  EXCELLENT  ROBE;  ifoehe  rwv  JJLEVOVTWV  swcu 
(sc.  eig),  he  desired  to  be  ONE  OF  THOSE  who  remained.  On  this 
principle  is  explained  such  phrases  as  sGrl  roor  aiG%Qoov  (sc.  eig), 
for  fGTi  aiGXQog,  he  is  base  (literally  uone  of  the  base  "). 

478. —  Obs.  5.  Partitives  agree  in  gender  with  the  substantives 
which  follow  in  the  genitive.  When  two  substantives  follow  in 
the  genitive,  the  partitives,  &c.  commonly  agree  with  the  former, 
but  sometimes  with  the  latter. 

479. — Obs.  6.  Collective  nouns  are  governed  by  partitives  in 
the  genitive  singular. 

480. —  Obs.  7.  Adjectives  in  the  positive  form,  but  conveying 
a  superlative  sense,  on  the  principle  of  this  rule  govern  the  geni- 
tive plural ;  as,  e%o%og  ndvrcor,  the  most  excellent  of  all ;  dice 
0edowj  goddess  of  goddesses  (i.  e.  supreme  goddess) ;  dia  yvvai- 
xav,  most  excellent  of  women.  /Jaifione  av8Q&v,  Good  sir.  Also 
nouns  compounded  with  a  in  a  privative  sense  ;  as,  a%a).xog  aGTZi- 
dcov,  unarmed  with  brazen  shields. 

481. —  Ofo.  8.  On  a  similar  principle  an  adjective  in  the  geni- 
tive plural  sometimes  accompanies  substantives  of  all  kinds,  in 
order  to  mark  the  class  to  which  the  person  or  thing  mentioned 
belongs;  as,  tQO%bg  rav  xeQapeixwv,  a  wheel  OF  THE  CLASS 
OF  THE  EARTHEN,  i.  e.  an  earthen  wheel ;  nekexvg  i&v  v^vn^yi- 
ftwv,  an  axe  OF  THOSE  BELONGING  TO  SHIP-BUILDERS,  i.  e.  a  ship- 
builder's axe. 


§  143.       GENITIVE   GOVERNED   BY  ADJECTIVES.  235 


XIT 


482. — RULE  XI.  The  comparative  degree,  with- 
out a  conjunction,  governs  the  genitive  ;  as, 

sweeter  than  honey, 
cpftoyog,          envy  is  stronger  than  pity. 

433. — Rem.  The  principle  of  this  rule  is  stated  444—5.  There  is 
inot  the  same  objection  to  the  usual  explanation  of  this  rule,  by  supply- 
ing the  preposition  nyo  or  avri,  that  is  stated  467.  Yet  tfee  analogy  of 
the  cases  already  referred  to  are  opposed  to  this  explanation,  and  seem 
to  render  it  more  proper  to  refer  to  the  general  principle  above  stated. 
At  the  same  time  it  must  be  noticed,  that  after  the  comparative  degree 
the  genitive  is  sometimes  governed  by  one  of  these  prepositions  ex- 
pressed; as,  olffw  -rj  rvqavviq  TIQO  iktv&tQ  l?j-<;  r\v  aanaarott- 
QOV,  to  whom  tyranny  was  MORE  AGREEABLE  «THAN  LIBERTY  ;  but  this  will 
not  decide  in  favour  of  explaining  the  construction  under  this  rule  by 
supplying  the  preposition,  any  more  than  it  did  in  the  other,  475. 

484. —  Obs.  9.  The  conjunction  //,  than,  after  the  comparative 
is  usually  followed  by  the  same  case  that  precedes  it ;  as,  ITI 
avdqag  nokv  dpewovag  /}  -Zxv#O£,  against  men  much  braver 
than  the  Scythians.  Sometimes,  however;  it  is  followed  by  the 
nominative,  if  elfjii,  or  another  word,  can  be  supplied ;  as,  roig 
vecoTZQOig  ?/  f'yco,  to  those  younger  than  I  am. 

485. —  Obs.  10.  After  the  comparative,  //  is  sometimes  followed 
by  an  infinitive  with  or  without  <ag  or  MGTS ;  as,  x«x«  [tet'^co  ?} 
wars  dvaxhaiuv,  evils  too  great  to  excite  my  tears ;  voaqpa 
[t£i£ov  ^  fpt'QMv,  affliction  too  great  to  bear. 

486. —  Obs.  11.  The  comparative  without  %  (titan)  is  followed 
by  the  genitive  according  to  the  rule ;  as,  cpwva  yAvx^cor^a 
|Ufi£xj^ai,  a  voice  sweeter  than  honey-comb. 

487. —  Obs.  12.  The  genitives  rovrov  and  ov,  governed  by  a 
comparative,  are  often  followed  by  an  explanation  with  // ;  as, 
ovx  SGTi  rovds  TICUGI  Kcd.kiov  /^tt^,  ?j  7icx.TQog  IffMov  xuyaftov 
Tieqivxwai,  there  is  no  greater  honour  to  children  than  this  (viz. 
than),  to  be  descended  from  a  brave  and  virtuous  father. 

488. —  06s.  13.  The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence 
being  equivalent  to  a  noun  (714),  is  sometimes  governed  in  the 
genitive  by  a  comparative;  as,  TO  tyvk(i<*cu  T  ay  ad  a  rov 
xTqGaad'ai,  %aks7ico'zeQOv  Icii,  to  preserve  property  is 

MORE  DIFFICULT  THAN  TO   GAIN  IT. 

489. —  Obs.  14.  Words  which  imply  a  comparison,  govern  the 
genitive  on  the  same  principle ;  these  are 

1st.  $uch  words  as  express  difference  ;  as,  asQiGGo 

also,  didcpogog,  treQog,  alkog,  aD.oiog, 


236  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERB 


2d.  Multiplicative   pumbers ;    as,  diTzkdciog,  VQiTtlaGiog ;    as, 
diTthdaiov  dei  dxovsiv  rov  key  sir,  one   should  hear 

TWICE  AS  MUCH  AS  HE  SPEAKS. 

490. —  Obs.  15.  The  superlative  is  sometimes  used  for  the  com- 
parative, and  is  then  subject  to  the  same  rules;  as,  (with  the  con- 
junction) kcpatov  /}  TO  <l>ksyQag  nsdiov,  better  than  the  plain  of 
Phlegra  ;  (without  the  conjunction)  ceto  8'  ovrig 
rarog,  no  man  is  happier  than  you. 


§144.  THE  GENITIVlT  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS. 

491.  —  RULE  XII.  The  person  or  thing  to  which 
any  thing  belongs,  is  put  in  the  genitive  after 


TOV  j&aytiteftt?,  it  belongs  to  the  king. 

i  savrov,  to  be  his  own  (master). 

rov  xak&g  nok^^iv  to  l&e-  alacrity  is  necessary  to  fight 
\ziv  l$n',  well  ;  i.  e.  belongs  to  it. 

492  —  Rem.  For  the  principle  of  this  rule,  see  446.  Consistently 
with  this,  in  constructions  -of  this  kind,  a  substantive  may  he  considered 
as  understood,  which  is  the  governing  word.  Lat.  Gr.  365. 

493.  —  Obs.  1.  Yet  here  also  we  have  the  genitive  governed 
directly  by  a  preposition  expressed,  indicating  that  from  which 
the  quality,  &c.  proceeds  ;  as,  ovx  &m  n  Q  o  g  nohcog,  it  is  'not 
proper  for  the  state  ;  lit.  it  is  not  a  thing  PROCEEDING  PROM  the 
state.  On  this  principle  are  to  be  explained  such  sentences  as 
the  following  ;  ovx  ayapai  rovr  dvdgbg  aQicrsog,  I  do  not 
approve  this  IN  A  PRINCE;  i.  e.  TiQog  AvSgog,  &c.from  a  prince  ; 
rovro  maivw  ^tyqcihaovj  I  commend  this  IN  AGESILAUS  ;  tov- 
v,  this  they  blame  chiefly  IN  us. 


494.  —  RULE  XIII.  Verbs  expressing  the  opera- 
tion of  the  senses,  govern  the  genitive  ;  as, 

'  pev,  hear  me. 

lji°v  um°v,  touch  me  not. 


495.  —  Exc.  1.  Verbs  of  seeing  govern  the  accusative;    as,. 
Qiov  otyovrai,  they  shall  see  God. 


§  144.  GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY  VERBS.  237 

496. — Exc.  2.  In  the  Attic  dialect,  all  verbs  of  sense  govern 
the  accusative  ;  and  sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  in  the  other 
dialects ;  as,  ^xovcra  cpowtjv,  I  heard  a  voice  ;  Gnhdy%va  Indaav- 
ro,  they  tasted  the  entrails. 

497. —  Obs.  2.  The  principle  on  which  verbs  under  this  rule, 
and  some  of  those  that  follow,  govern  the  genitive,  is,  .that  the 
word  in  the  genitive,  following  the  verb,  expresses  that  which  is 
viewed  as  the  origin  or  cause,  in  some  way  or  other,  of  the  sensa- 
tion, or  of  the  act  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb,  446. 

498 — Rein.  If,  after  verbs  which  usually  govern  the  genitive,  the 
genitive  is  governed  by  a  preposition  interposed,  the  preposition  gener-- 
ally  corresponds  to  the  idea  of  origin  or  cause,  <fcc.  expressed  by  the 
genitive  (as,  ano,  TT^OC,  and  the  like) ;  and  thus,  instead  of  militating 
against  the  principles  stated  above,  it  adds  its  own  force  to  that  of  the 
genitive,  giving  emphasis  and  distinction  to  the  sentence.  But  to  sup- 
pose from  this,  that  when  the  ge'nitive  follows  a  verb,  it  is  always  gov- 
erned by  a  substantive  or  preposition  understood,  besides  being  wholly 
unnecessary  on  the  principles  already  stated,  serves  only  to  destroy 
the  original  and  characteristic  simplicity  of  the  language,  and  to  render 
its  construction  perplexed  and  intricate. 


499.  —  RULE  XIV.  Verbs  signifying  an  opera- 
tion of  the  mind,  govern  tlie  genitive  ;  as, 

GOV,  I  admire  you. 

vow  fpOiow,  you  neglect  your  friends. 


500  —  Rem.  Verbs  which  come  under  this  rule  govern  the  genitive 
on  the  principles  stated,  444-3  and  446.  Examples  occur  also  in  Latin  ; 
see  Lat.  Gr.  369.  It  applies  generally  to  verbs  which  signify 


1  .  To  pity,  to  spare,  to  care  for,  or  neglect  ;  as, 
<PQOIKI£SW,  ateyil^ew,  dpshew,  ohyoQeiv. 

2.  To  remember  or  forget;  as,  [ivaG&a 

veG&cu,  &c.  with  their  compounds.     But  these  frequently 
govern  the  accusative.  * 

3.  To  consider,  to  reflect,  to  perceive,  or  understand  ;  these 
also  govern  the  accusative. 

4.  To  admire,  to  aim  at,  to  desire  or  to  loathe,  to  revere  or  to 
despise. 

501.  —  Obs.  3.  Many  of  these  verbs  used  transitively  (i.e. 
signifying  to  cause  the  operation  of  mind  they  express),  govern 
the  accusative^  of  the  person  with  the  genitive  of  the  object  ;  as, 
vneftvfjffgx  s  TiaTQOCj  he  put  him  in  mind  of  his  father  ',  syEVGccg 
/i*  evdaipoviag,  you  have  caused  me  to  taste  of  happiness.  Verbs 


238  GENITIVE   GOVERNED   BY  VERBS.  §  144. 

thus  used  are  sometimes  denominated  causative  or  incentive  verbs, 
and  hence  the— 

502. — RULE.    Causative  verbs  govern  the  accu- 
sative of  the  person  with  the  genitive  of  the  thing. 


503. — RULE  XV.  Transitive  verbs  govern  the 
genitive  when  they  refer  to  a  part  only,  and  not 
to  the  whole  of  the  object ;  as, 

ems  lov  vdarog,  he  drank  of  the  water. 

504. — This  construction  depends  on  the  principle  stated,  445,  or  we 
may  consider  the  expression  elliptical,  and  supply  some  such  word  as 
fii$o<;,  a  part,  or  tl,  some,  as  the  direct  pbject  of  the  verb,  and  that  which 
governs  the  genitive  according  to  Rules  V.  and  VI. 

505. — To  this  rule  belong  more  especially  such  verbs  as  sig- 
nify, 

1.  To  share,  participate,  or  impart,  which,  with  the  genitive 
of  the  thing,  frequently  govern  the  dative  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  imparted  ;    as,  fisrcfdidoofu  IQ   dde&qxp  vwv 
XQijjjidrwv,  I  share  the  property  with  my  brother. 

2.  To  receive,  obtain,  or  enjoy ;  as,  iipr^  £l##e,  he  gained 
honour  j  lav  haficoftev  6%oh?jg9  if  we  get  leisure. 

3.  Verbs  signifying  to  take,  to  seize,  and  their  contraries  ;  to 
touch,  or  to  carry,  especially  in  the  middle  voice,  with  the 
accusative  of  the  whole,  govern  the  genitive  of  the  part  af- 
fected ;  &d$ovvo  tijs  ^wvijg  rov'OQOViriv,  they  seized 

ORONTES  BY  THE  GIRDLE. 

506. — Exc.  Some  verbs,  such  as  lapfidvofiai,  ^m'/oo,  xA^o- 
vopeco,  kayftdva),  rv^droo,  sometimes  govern  the  accusative  of 
the  thing ;  xkyQovopea)  with  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  govern*! 
also  the  genitive  of  the  person  from  whom  it  is  received ;  av, 
IX^QOVO^O'S  rov  natQog  rd  xrijpava,  he  inherited  his  posse* 
sions  from  his  father  ;  sometimes  it  governs  the  genitive  of  bo th 


507. — EULE  XVI.  Verbs  ofplenty'or  want, fill 
ing  or  depriving,  separation  or  distance,  govern 
the  genitive  (444-4)  ;  as, 

synods i  XQrjpdrcov,  he  abounds  in  pi.ches. 

%QVGOV  vy/fida-ftco  rtja,  let  him  fill  his  ship  ivith  gold. 

to  be  in  want  of  money. 


§144.  GENITIVE   GOVERNED  BY  VERBS.  289 

508.  —  Under  this  rule  there  may  be  comprehended   verbs 
which  express  the  general  idea  of  separation,  or  which  signify  — 

1.  To  beg  or  entreat  ;  as,  dlo^iai  GOV,  I  leg  of  you. 

2.  To  bereave  or  deprive  ^  as,  areQSco,  dnoGTSQea). 

3.  To  deliver,  loose,  or  set  free  ;  as,  Ifovdegoa),  Avco, 


4.  To  escape  ;  as,  s'x 

5.  To  keep  off,  to  hinder,  or  prevent,  to  desist  ;  as, 
ZQijTsvco,  e%»  (scil.  rim  vivog),  eigyopcu,  &c. 

6.  To  £fc^r  from,   to  be  distant,   to  abstain  ;    as, 
dnsftw,  Siakhdrrco,  diayegco,  uns^opou.     But  some  verbs 
of  differing  govern  also  the  dative  ;  as,  diacpeQw  GOI,  I 
differ  from  you. 

7.  To  separate,  repel,  or  drive  away  ;  as,  #o()/foo, 


8.  To  make  way  for,  or  retire  from,  to  resign  ;  as, 


9.   To  err,  to  cause  to  err  ;  vt 
dfiaQTava),  a&avdco. 

10.  7b  cease,  to  cause  to  cease  ;  as,  nava,  Ttavopcu,  kfyo),  &c. 

11.  2b  deceive,  frustrate,  or  disappoint  ;  as,  ifjsvdo^cu,  malco, 


509.  —  06s.  5.  Many  of  these  are  transitive;   and  with  the 
genitive  of  the  remote  object,  govern  the  accusative  of  the  direct 
object  ;  thus,  under  No.  3,  as  rov8  Ihv&eQO)  cpovov,  I  clear  you 
of  this  murder  ;  dyatQEiG&ai,  to  deprive,  sometimes  governs  the 
accusative  and  genitive,  sometimes  two  accusatives,  and  some- 
times the  accusative  and  dative. 

510.  —  Obs.  6.  The  genitive  after  these  verbs,  whether  transi- 
tive or  intransitive,  is  sometimes  governed  by  a  preposition  inter- 
^rening,  the  effect  of  which  is,  to  give  emphasis  to  the  expression  ; 
as,  D.ev&8Qca6ag  ii]v  'E^dda  ano  Mijdcov,  having  liberated  Greece 
from  the  Medes,  498.  " 


511.  —  RULE  XVII.  Verbs  of  ruling,  presiding 
over,  excelling,  and  the  contrary,  govern  the  geni- 
tive (444-5)  ;  as, 


s&vcov  aQ%ew,  to  rule  over  many  nations. 

row  rtQayiidrw?  Imararew,  to  have  the  superintendence  of  affairs. 


240  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS.  §  144:. 

512.  —  The  verbs  which  come  under  this  rule  are  those  which 
-ignify, 

1.  To  rule;    as,  «£>#co,  x^caVco,  deGTTo^co,  dwaGtsvco,  l%ov- 
Gid^G),  av&evrsco, 

2.  To  reign  ;  as, 

3.  To  lead  ;  as, 

4.  To  preside  over  ;  as, 

5.  To  survive,  or  to  be  over/,  as, 

6.  Td  surpass,  or  excel  ;  as, 


7.  To  begin,  i.  e.  to  be  first,  to  lead  the  way  ;  as,  aQ^o^at  ;  so 
aQ%a),  induct),  xard()%G). 

8.  The  contrary  are  such  as  signify  to  be  ruled,  led,  presided 
over,  &c.  ;  to  obey,  to  be  inferior  to,  to  be  overcome. 

513.  —  Obs.  7.  Some  verbs  govern  the  genitive  by  the  force 
of  a  noun  implied  in  them  ;  thus,  rvQCcvveveiv  is  equivalent  to 
tVQavvog  ewai  ;  and  hence  IrvQavvevs  KOQIV&OV,  he  was  king  of 
Corinth,  is  equivalent  to  vvQuvvog  rp  KOQW&OV. 

514.  —  Obs.  8.  Many  verbs  under  this  rule  sometimes  govern 
the  dative  ;  as,  dvdGGco,  Gijfuuvto,  XQarico,  fysopca, 

and  sometimes  the  accusative. 


515. — RULE  XVIII.  Verbs  of  buying,  selling, 
estimating,  and  the  like,  govern  the  genitive  of 
the  price  (648)  ;  as, 

rovro  ntvte,  dQa%pcov,  I  bought  this  for  FIVE 

DRACHMAE. 

novwv  Ttw'kovGiv  ^iv  Ttdvta  tdyd&a  ol  &eoi,    the 
.gods  SELL  every  good  thing  to  us  for  LABOUR. 
a^iovrai  diahijg  ripijg,  he  is  thought  worthy  OF  DOUBLE 
HONOUR. 

516. — Rem.  The  genitive  in  this  construction  is  properly 
governed  by  dvri  understood,  sometimes  expressed.  The  price 
is  sometimes  put  in  the  dative  with  the  preposition  int,  and  some- 
times in  the  accusative  with  the  preposition  agog.  649. 

K  B. — For  the  construction  of  the  genitive  with  the  accusa- 
tive, see  §  151 ;  also,  for  the  genitive  governed  by  ad-verbs,  see 
§164,  165;  by  prepositions,  §  168,  and  as  used  to  express  cer- 
tain circumstances,  §  156,  157,  and  from  §  160  to  §  163. 


!  145,  146.      DATIVE  AFTER  SUBSTANTIVES.  241 


§145.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  DATIVE. 

5 17. — The  dative  has,  in  general,  two  significations  : 

1.  It  is  used  to  express  the  remote  object  to  which  a*y  quality  or 
action,  or  any  state  or  condition  of  things  tends,  or  to  which  it  refers. 
This  tendency  is  usually  expressed  in  English  by  the  words  to  or  for. 
As  thus  used,  it  corresponds  to  the  dative  in  Latin,  and  is  subject  to 
nearly  the  same  rules. 

Rem.  To  this  general  character  of  the  dative  may  be  referred  a  use 
of  this  case  common  in  the  best  Greek  writers,  when  the  dative  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  thing  spoken  of  may,  in  some  way  or  other,  be  in- 
teresting, is  thrown  in,  without  any  dependence  for  its  construction 
on  any  word  in  the  sentence,  and  when  the  sentence  as  regards  syntax 
is  complete  without  it.  In  such  cases  the  dative  is  said  to  be  redundant. 
But  though  it  is  so  in  respect  of  construction,  it  is  not  so  in  respect  of 
effect,  as  it  imparts  a  touch  of  feeling  and  sentiment  easily  felt,  but  not 
so  easy  to  express  in  a  translation.  Thus,  17  ^T//£  ««  o~t  TIQHIV  o,ti>  uv 
polity,  iv  avrri  uaxdQK;  //<,-  (Plat.  Lys.),  thy  mother  permits  thee  to  do 
whatever  thou  p'leasest,  in  order  that  thou  mayest  be  happy  (TO  HER).  The 
aiVrtj  is  added  with  reference  to  the  feelings  of  the  mother.  The  datives 
uoi  and  o~oi  are  very  often  used  in  this  way.  Thus,  Oedip.  Tyr.  2.  tivaq 
7toO?  i'dipag  tdafo  f.(ov  &od^rc,  where  uoi  intimates  the  mournful  in- 
terest the  good  king  felt  in  the  scene  before  him.  In  Xen.  Cyr.  Cyrus 
addressing  his  mother,  says,  oluai  GOI>  iteivovs — vwtjfftw  &c.  I  have  no 
doubt  that  I  will  easily  surpass  these;  where  o~ol  intimates  the  delight- 
ful interest  an  affectionate  mother  might  be  supposed  to  feel  in  the 
event  anticipated.  So  in  Latin,  Quo  tantum  Mim  dexter  abis,  Virg. 
^Eneid  V.  162.  Lat.  Gr.  377-3. 

2.  It  is  used  to  express  that  with  which  any  thing  is  connected  aa  an 
accompaniment,  cause,  instrument,  manner,  means,  or  end.     This  connec- 
tion is  usually  expressed  in^English  by  such  words  as  with,  by,  from,  in, 
for,  or  on  account  of.     Used  in  this  way,  it  corresponds  to  the  ablative 
in  Latin,  both  in  meaning  and  construction. 


§  146.  THE  DATIVE  AFTER  SUBSTANTIVES. 

518. — EULE  XIX.  Substantives  derived  from 
verbs  which  govern  the  dative,  sometimes  govern 
the  dative  also  ;  as, 

ri  iov  &eov  doGi$  vpw,  the  gift  of  God  to  you. 

rotg  yikoig  floy-     the  assistance  of  (i.  e.  rendered 

to)  friends  in  war. 
tolg  %vpp(i%oig,         for  the  contradiction  of  your 

allies  : — 
Because  d/dcojtcf,  fioti&sm,  and  dvrdeyoo,  govern  the  dative. 


242  DATIVE   GOVERNED   BY  ADJECTIVES.         §  147. 

519. —  Obs.  1.  The  dative  often  follows  a  substantive  in  the 
sense  of  the  genitive,  for  which  construction,  with  examples,  see 
533. 

520. —  Obs.  2.  The  dative  sometimes  depends  on  an  adjective 
and  substantive  joined  together,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
adjective  ;  as,  xfaww  ftdhog  naryi,  illustrious  offspring  to  tlw 
father. 

521. —  Obs.  3.  The  dative  sometimes  follows  a  substantive, 
not.,  however,  as  implying  possession,  but  where  the  idea  of  adap- 
tation or  design  is  implied ;  as,  %EQGW  novog,  labour  for  tJte 
hands  ;  i.  e.  adapted  for,  designed  for,  suited  to. 

522. —  Obs.  4.  The  dative  is  also  put  with  substantives  to  ex- 
press the  idea  of  companionship,  being  governed  probably  by 
ovv  or  opot&g  understood ;  as,  (GV)  vmv&vvog  ei  roig  akkoig, 
you  are  responsible,  AS  WELL  AS  (or  equally  with)  THE  REST. 


§147.  THE  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES. 

•523. — RULE  XX.  Adjectives  signifying  profit 
or  disprofit,  likeness  or  unlikeness,  govern  the  da- 
tive ;  as, 

ea(jpfc'A^O£  ty  nobei,  profitable  to  the  state, 

bpoiog  vet)  natQi,  like  his  father. 

524. — The  dative  after  such  adjectives,  expresses  the  object  to 
which  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective  refers  ;  and  hence, 
all  adjectives  in  which  such  a  reference  is  involved,  are  followed 
by  the  dative  of  the  object  to  which-  they  relate.     In  ttds  class, 
besides  those  mentioned  in  the  rule,  may  be  reckoned, 
1st.  Adjectives  signifying  usefulness,  friendliness,  equality,  suita- 
bleness, resemblance,  ease,  fitness,  agreement,  and  the  like, 
with  their  contraries.     Hence,  o  avrog,  the  same,  and  some- 
times eig,  one,  and  toiovtog,  such,  are  followed  by  the  da- 
tive ;  as,  ra  avra  (ravra)  7ta.G%co  GOI,  I  suffer  THE  SAME 
THINGS  WITH  YOU — (so  in  Latin,  Invitum  qui  servat,  IDEM 
facit  OCCIDENTI.  Hor.  He  who  preserves  a  man  against  his 

Will,  acts   THE    SAME    PART  WITH  THE  MAN  WHO  KILLS  HIM)  J 

og   £/*o*  piag  fyevez   IK  fi^rt'Qog,   who   was   OF   THE 

SAME  (or  ONE)  MOTHER  WITH  ME  ;  loyovg  ity — roiovrovg 
hfysw,  to  speak  SUCH  words  AS  HE  WOULD. 


§147.          DATIVE   GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES.  243 

Exc.  Adjectives  signifying  likeness,  equality,  <fec.  are  sometimes  fol- 
lowed by  the  object  of  comparison,  not  in  the  dative,  but  in  the  same 
case  with  the  adjective,  and  connected  with  it  by_  the  conjunction  xcu; 
as,  O^TOC;  yf  jo  loyog  £.uoi,yt  doxtZ  av  oi*,ot,oq  tlvav  %ai  Ttg  or  fQoq 
(instead  of  tlvai,  rfi  TT^OTE'^W),  this  argument  would  seem,  to  me  at  least 
TO  BE  LIKE  THE  FORMES,  So  also  the  nominative  is  used  after  the  adverbs 


ouoloKj  l'(To)q,  y.ara  Tarcc  ;  as,  or/  OJUOIOK;    ntnovrixaGb  xal 

they  have  not  done  LIKE  HOMER  ;  x  a  r  a  tavra  ovroq  yxrjfft  xca 

qa,  he  sounded  JUST  AS  A  HARP.     These  constructions  are  probably  to  be 

resolved  thus  :  oinrog  ye  6  loyos  xca  TtgoTfyoq  do-/.il,  <fcc.  ;    ovtoq   xca 


2d.  Adjectives  compounded  with  GVV,  opov,  and  pera,  signifying 
with;  as,  GvvzQOCpog,  opOQOg,  [iEtairiog  tin,  &c.  ;•  —  yet 
sometimes  these  govern  the  genitive. 

3d.  Some  adjectives  derived  from  verbs  which  govern  the  da- 
tive, govern  the  dative  also  ;  as, 


525.  —  Obs.  1.  There  are  many  adjectives  which  govern  either 
the  genitive  or  dative  ;  as,  ofioiog,  like  ;  I'GO^J  equal  ;  bpcovv/tog, 
of  the  same  name  ;  bpoadrQiog,  of  the  same  father  ;  ofiopfjTQLog, 
of  the  same  mother  ;  avvTQOCpog,  educated   together  ;  Gwifiyg, 
familiar  ;    laooQOTiog,    of  the   same  force  ;    xoivog,    common  ; 
nlovGiog,  «(/;^ao?,  rich  ;  evnogog,  abundant  ;  wdefapoor  ;  &o- 
%og,  vaodixog,  vnsvOvvog,  exposed,  obnoxious  ;  owtiog,  familiar  ; 
ftwo^,  to  be  sold  ;  Sovkog,  a  slave  ;  &ev&£Qog,  free  ;  as,  opoiog 
rov  TtarQog,  or  rtp  THZTQI,  like  his  father  ;  bpavvpog  rov  TtarQog, 
or  -rep  narQij  of  the  same  name  with  his  father. 

526.  —  Obs.'z.  It  has  been  observed  (202,  Obs.  1),  that  the  ver- 
bal adjectives  in  Tog  and  te'og  have  a  passive  signification  corres- 
ponding nearly  to  the  Latin  verbals  in  bills  and  dus.     Their  con- 
struction, when  thus  used,  is  also  similar  ;  and  hence  thelfollowing 


527. — SPECIAL   EULE  I.     Verbals  in  Tog  and 
±,  signifying  passively,  govern  the  dative  of  the 
doer ;  as, 

rovro  ov  rtrjTov  IGTI  poi,       this  is  not  fit  to  be  spoken  by  me. 
TI  nohg  cotyztyrea  ooi  sen,  the  city  ought  to  be  served  by  thee. 

528. — Rem.  The  dative,  however,  in  this  construction,  when 
it  is  general  in  its  nature,  is  commonly  omitted  ;  as,  lyttftm  iarlv 
/}  aQsri],  virtue  must  be  honoured  (viz.  rk\ii'v,  by  us). 

529. —  Obs.  3.  Verbals  in  rog,  not  signifying  passively,  govern 
the  case  of  their  own  verbs  ;  as,  el  rep  s^co  Tavdol 


244:  DATIVE   GOVERNED  BY  VERBS.  §  148. 

if  I  blame  my  husband.   Soph.  Trach. ;  dipavcrbg  fy%ovg,  not 
having  touched  the  sword.    202,  Obs.  1. 


530. — SPECIAL  RULE  II.  The  neuter  verbal  in 
rsor,  in  the  sense  of  the  Latin  gerund,  with  the 
dative  of  the  doer,  governs  also  the  case  of  the 
verb  from  which  it  is  derived  ;  as, 

vavta  navia  noi^tlov  pot,  ALL  THESE  THINGS  must  I  do. 
rolg  iilv  VTtdQ%ov6i  vojjioig  XQrfiTsov,  xaivovg  ds  eixt]  py 

#fcT«w,  we  should  use  the  PRESENT  LAWS,  and  not  rashly  enact' 

NEW  ONES. 

531. —  Obs.  4.  The  doer  is  sometimes  put  in  the  accusative,  in 
which  case  the  necessity  involved  in  the  verbal  is  much  weaker 
than  in  the  ordinary  construction  ;  as,  ov  dovlevrsov  rovg  VQVV 
8%ovrag  toig  xaxwg  cpQovovGi,  THE  PRUDENT  ought  not  to  obey 
the  unwise  ;  STZIGXSTZTZOV  va  [tsv  avrov,  ra  ds  yvvalxu,  (for 
avrcp,  yvvawi),  some  things  are  to  be  looked  to  by  HIM,  some  by 
his  WIFE.  •  Both  are  united  by  Plato,  Bep.  5,  ovxovv  xal  i]\iiv 


§  148.  THE  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS. 

532. — RULE  XXL    The  verbs  --dpi, 
and  v7iaQ%oo,  signifying  to  be,  or  to  belong  to,  are 
followed  by  the  dative  of  the  possessor ;  as, 

ten  pot  %Q}jpara,  possessions  are  (belong)  to  me,  i.  e.  /  have  pos- 
sessions. 

Tetycp  Ticudeg  rfiav  xakol  xaya&oi,  good  children  were  to  Tellus, 
i.  e.  Tellus  had  good  children. 

533. —  Obs.  1.  On  the  principle  of  this  rule  may  be  explained 
the  numerous  instances,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  which  the 
dative  signifyingjDossession  is  used  with  another  substantive  appa- 
rently for  the  genitive.  Thus,  Tehkcp  ol  Ttaldsg  is  equivalent  to 
T&MtOV  ol  naideg,  the  children  of  Tellus  ;  but  the  principle  of 
construction  is  different.  In  the  latter  expression,  the  genitive  is 
'mmediately  governed  by  the  other  substantive,  ol  naldeg,  by 
Rule  V.,  and  signifies  the  children  proceeding  from,  and  belong- 


§  148.  DATIVE   GOVERNED   BY  VERBS.  245 

ing  to,  Tellus.  In  the  former,  the  dative  is  not  governed  by  the 
substantive,  but  depends  on  some  part  of  the  substantive-verb 
understood ;  thus,  TtUco  ol  Ttaidsg  (ol  iwreg),  Tello  filii  (qui 
sunt),  the  children  which  are  to  (belonging,  or  added  to)  Tellus  ; 
or,  without  a  periphrasis,  "  the  children  of  Tellus.''1  In  this  man- 
ner may  be  resolved  all  such  expressions  as  OGGS  ds  o/,  his  two 
eyes  ;  {^vyarr^  *ii  o/,  her  daughter  ;  rep  Jbtyaiptto  b  rdcpog,  the 
sepulchre  of  Andrcrmon,  &c.  Lat.  Gr.  380,  381. 

534. — Rem.  1.  This  mode  of  expression  with  the  dative  is  so  nearly 
synonymous  with  the  more  common  construction  with  the  genitive, 
that  it  appears  often  to  have  been  a  matter  of  indifference  which  of 
them  was  used ;  so  much  so,  that  a  sentence  sometimes  begins  with 
the  one  construction  and  ends  with  the  other  ;  thus,  ?;  /t  lv  de  -/.aTtyJ.d- 
G&ri  q>M.ov  ^TOQ  dti,GavtMV  q>&6yyov  rs  fiotQvv;  literally,  the  heart  TO 
us  DREADING  his  orowlinff  voice  was  broken  down.  In  this  sentence  dtu- 
<*rdvTo)v  refers  to  ^<  lv  as  if  it  were  rjf,iMv  in  the  genitive.  In  the  follow- 
ing sentence  the  order  is  reversed:  T+J<;  d*  avrov  IVTO  q>ilov  T^TOO  arj- 
/nara  avayvovff'fl,  her  heart  was  moved  when  SHE  RECOGNIZED  me  to- 
kens. Here  uvayv'ovffji  in  the  dative,  refers  to  rr^  in  the  genitive,  as 
if  it  had  been  TTJ. 

535 — Rem.  2.  In  other  instances  in  which  the  dative  follows  a  sub- 
stantive apparently  for  the  genitive,  the  idea  of  tendency  towards  or  of 
acquisition" or  addition,  expressed  inr  English  by  the  preposition  to  or 
for,  is  generally  apparent ;  as,  naryi  r^io)^6v  yovov,  an  avenger  of 
your  fathers  murder  ;  plainly  an  avenger  of  murder  to  or  for  your  fa- 
ther-. Indeed,  the  idea  of  possession,  one  of  the  meanings  of  the  geni- 
tive, and  of  acquisition,  the  proper  idea  expressed  by  the  dative,  are 
so  nearly  allied  as  to  render  the  use  of  the  one  case  for  the  other  not 
unnatural. 

536. —  Obs.  2.  When  of  two  nouns  in  the  dative,  the  one  ex- 
presses a  part  of,  or  something  belonging  to,  the  other,  the  latter 
,  may  be  rendered  as  the  genitive,  and  the  construction  explained 
as  in  Obs.  1  (533) ;  yet  it  may  be  often  better  to  consider  them 
in  apposition,  both  depending  oA  the  same  governing  word — the 
one  term  being  added  to  limit  or  define  more  precisely,  the  more 
general  idea  contained  in  the  other ;  thus,  in  the  sentence,  ovx 
j4fct[tefA9Ofi  i'ivdavs  &v[i(p,  the  dative  ^yafie'pvon  may  be 
considered  as  regularly  governed  by  r^dave,  (548-1),  and  fivftcp 
added  in  apposition,  more  particularly  defining  the  part  affected  ; 
as,  he  did  not  please  AGAMEMNON  ;  viz.  HIS  MIND  (his  feelings). 
This  construction  is  imitated  in  Latin  (Lat.  Gr.  371).  So  also 
the  following  examples : 

xocr/ior  ov  6<piv  wnuGEV  Zev$  ysvsi,  an  ornament  which  Jupi- 
ter gave  TO  THEM,  viz.  THEIR  RACE. 
fiaQrvQm  ds  poi  ry  yvwn>r[,  (the  oracle)  bears  witness  FOR  ME, 

1.  e.  FOR  MY  OPINION. 


246         DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS.       §  148. 

537.  —  In  the  following  sentence,  instead  of  the  second  dative, 
we  have  the  accusative  with  x«r«;  viz.,  i^ds  ds  IJLOI  Kara  \>y- 
p,bv  aQiGTrj  qxuvero  fiov/j],  but  this  counsel  seemed  best  TO  ME  IN 
RESPECT  OF  MY  FEELINGS  ;  i.  e.  this,  counsel  pleased  me  most. 

538.  —  Rem.'§.  The  correctness  of  this  view  of  the  construction  is 
also  rendered  more  probable  from  the  fact,  that  the  same  apparent  tau- 
tology is  used  when  the  word  to  be  limited  or  defined'  is  connected  with 
words  which  govern  the  accusative  ;  as,  il  ds  ere  rpqivaq  ixtro  TtivOoq  j 
what  grief  has  invaded  YOUR  MIND?     Where,  instead  of  saying  that  ere  is 
the  accusative  used  for  the  genitive  GOV  according  to  one  mode  of  reso- 
lution, or  that  (pqiva<;  is  governed  by  y.ard  understood   according  to 
another,  it  appears  better  to  consider  as  as  the  general  direct  object, 
and  CPQWCU;  as  in  apposition,  defining  more  precisely  the  part  affected 
as  in  the  above  examples  ;  thus,   "  what  grief  has  come  upon  YOU  :  viz. 
YOUR  MIND."     So  in  other  instances  ;  as, 


ds  tQo^oq  VTiqJlv&t  yvta,  exacrtov,  trembling  came  upon 
the  Trojans,  EVERY  ONE  IN  THEIR  LIMBS. 
rbv  yk  ttri   baiia  &VIAQS  ayrjvwQ,  the  noble  sold  left  him;  viz. 

HIS    BODY. 

sQirVtbv  tdiLivE  vlovq  oQTttjxas,  he  cut  the   WILD   FIG   TREE,   ITS 

YOUNG  BOUGHS. 

539.  —  Obs.  3.  The  dative  of  some  participles  and  adjectives 
is  joined  with  the  dative  after  the  third  person  of  sipi  or  yivo[i(u, 
for  the  verb  itself  ;  these  are  such  as  fiovkopevog,  ijdopwog,  d%- 
&6[tevogt  7TQ06ds%6[A8vog,  axcov,  ci<j[ievog,  &c.  ;  as,  f!i  GOI  fiovko- 
pwcp  IGTI,  for  el  ftovhrj,  if  you  are  willing  ;  ovfis  avrcp  ci'/.ovTi  t]v^ 
nor  was  he  unwilling  ;  tftoftiivoiGW  r^jiiv  oi  koyoi  ysyovaci,  we 
were  pleased  with  your  discourse.     This  construction  has  been 
imitated  in  Latin  ;  thus,  Tacit.  Agr.  1  8,  quibus  bellum  volentibus 
erat.  "who  were  inclined  for  war."     So  Sallust,  Jug.   100,  uti 
militibus  labos  volentibus  essetj  "  that  the  labour  might  be  agree- 
able to  the  soldiers."     See  Lat.  Gr.  396,  Note. 

540.  —  Obs.  4.  Somewhat  similar  to  this  is  the  construction  of 
the  dative  with  the  participle  or  adjective,  expressive  of  some 
feeling  or  emotion,  after  verbs  signifying  to  come  ;  as, 

do~[iwr}  d*  fyol  fofte,  he  came  to  me  delighted  (scil.  with  his 
coming)  ;  i.  e.  I  am  delighted  that  he  is  come. 

Tto&ovvTi  TtQovcpcwqg,  thou  comest  to  me  earnestly  ivishing  it, 
i.  e.  /  earnestly  wished  that  thou  wouldst  come. 

541.  —  Obs.  5.  To  this  rule  also  belongs  the  construction  of 
such  phrases  as  ri  Ipol  ncd  GOI  (scil.  xowov  a<rti)  ;  what  have 
I  to  do  with  thee?  (literally,  what  common  thing  is  there  TO  ME 
AND  YOU?)     ri  nhsov  larlv  Ifioi  ;  what  advantage  have  I  from 
it  ?  what  good  is  it  to  me  ? 


§  148.  DATIVE   GOVERNED  BY   VERBS.  247 

542.  —  RULE  XXII.  All  verbs  govern  the  dative 
of  the  object  to  which  their  action  is  directed;  as, 

ftsoig,  they  prayed  to  the  gods. 

nm,  to  look  up  to  any  one. 

dvsG%ov9       they  lifted  up  their  hands  to  Minerva. 


543.  —  Rem^  4:.  This  rule  maybe  considered  as  general,  applying  to 
all  cases  in  which  a  verb  expressing   action  is  followed  by  the  dative, 
the  action  not  being  exerted  upon,  but  simply  directed  to  the  object 
expressed  in  the  dative.     Hence,  if  the  verb  is  transitive,  it  will  govern 
also  ito  immediate  object  in  the  accusative  (584)  ;  if  intransitive,  it  will 
be  followed  by  the  dative  only.     More  particularly  to  this  rule  belong 

544.  —  I.    Verbs   expressing    action,    compounded    with    ITTI, 
fr£0£,  «V,  dvd,  <fec.     These  prepositions  serve  to  mark  more  pre- 
cisely the  direction  of  the  action,  or  state  of  .action,  to  an  object  ; 
as,  8iffEQ%S6&ai  rwi*,  to  come  to  one. 

545.  —  06.9.  6.  These  verbs  sometimes  govern  the  accusative 
by  the  force  of  the  preposition  with  which  they  are  compounded  ; 
as,  InEGrQarevas  nokiv,  he  waged  war  against  the  city,  693. 

546.  —  Obs.  7.  Hence  the  dative  in  this  construction  generally 
is  equivalent  to  the  preposition  ei$9  ngog,  iniy  <fcc.  with  the  accu- 
sative.    Further,  to  this  rule  belong 

547.  —  II.  Verbs  which  signify  — 

1.  To  profit  or  hurt  ;  to  please  or  displease  ;  to  reverence  or 
to  yield;  —  to  shew  ;  to  seem  ;  to  appear. 

2.  To  favour  or  assist  ;  and  the  contrary,  to  pray  to,  or  en- 
treat. 

3.  To  command,  exhort,  or  address  ;  to  obey  or  disobey  ;  to 
serve  or  resist. 

4.  To  fit  or  accommodate  ;  to  use  and  resemble. 

5.  To  give  to,  or  to  trust  ;  to  approach,  to  meet  or  to  follow. 

6.  To  reproach  with,  to  censure,  to  reprimand  or  rebuke,  to  be 
angry  with. 

548.  —  Exc.   dso)  or  dso^iai,  I  asJc,  governs  the  genitive  ;  Mo~- 
GOfiai  and  faravevcoj  always  the  accusative. 

549.  —  Obs.  8.  Many  of  these  verbs  sometimes  govern  the  da- 
tive, and  sometimes  the  accusative,  according  as  their  action  is 
viewed  by  the  writer  as  directed  to,  or  exerted  upon,  the  object 
In  the  former  case  they  are  viewed  as  intransitive  verbs  ;  in  the 
latter,  as  transitive. 


248      DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  IMPERSONAL  VERBS.     §  149. 

550.  —  RULE  XXIII.   Verbs    implying    connec- 
tion or  companionship,  govern  the  dative  ;  as, 

tm,  to  associate  with  any  one. 


551.  —  In  this  construction,  the  dative  is  considered  as  corres- 
ponding to  the  ablative  in  Latin  (517-2).     To  this  rule  belong 

1.  Verbs  compounded  with  GW>,  bpov,  fierd  (with)  ;  as,  ov£yv 
tin,  to  live  with  any  one. 

2.  Verbs  after  which  GVV,  bpov,  perd,  may  be  supplied  con- 
sistently with  the  sense,  such  as  those  which  signify 

(1.)  To  follow  (with),  to  converse,  to  mix,  to  be  reconciled, 

to  dwell  (ivith). 
(2.)   To  contend,  or  strive  with,  or  against,  &c. 

552.  —  Obs.  9.    Verbs  signifying    "to  contend,"    &c.  in  one 
point  of  view  may  come  under  the  principle  referred  to  543,  and 
hence  are  sometimes  followed  by  an  accusative  with  rtQog  ;  but 
then  they  signify  more  properly  "  to  attack" 

553.  —  Obs.  10.  If  a  dative  of  the  manner  or  instrument  (627) 
•bllows  the  verb  fjuvrvfu,  to  mix,  instead  of  the  dative  of  the  per 
son  associated  with,  the  genitive  is  used,  governed  by  the  word 
in  the  dative;   as,  Mala  diog   ev   cpikorqti  [Mysiaa,  Maia 

BEING  EMBRACED  BY  JUPITER. 

554.  —  Note.  To  the  principle  of  this  rule  may  be  referred  the  con- 
struction of  the  dative,  expressing  repetition  or  succession  ;  as,  &i>£JJ.a 
^•fcAA^,  storm  upon  storm  ;  ocJULov  <)'  civ  aAAw  nQOGlSouq,  "you  might  see 
one  and  then  another  "  (scil.  rushing  to  the  regions  of  Pluto). 

For  the  dative,  construed  with  the  passive  voice,  see  604. 


§149.  THE  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

555.  —  RULE  XXIV.   Impersonal  verbs  govern 
the  dative  ;  as, 

s&Grt  poi,  it  is  lawful  for  me. 

sdo^e  avrcp,  it  seemed  proper  to  him  (i.  e.  he  determined). 


556.  —  Obs.  1.  SPECIAL  RULE,  dtl,  skfevrti,  Sta- 

9  and  n 


§  149.    DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  IMPERSONAL  VERBS.      249 

with  their  compounds,  govern  the  dative  of  a  per- 
son with  the  genitive  of  a  thing ;  as, 

dsi  TiolJ.cov  GOI,  you  have  need  of  much. 

[WTSGTi  poi  TOVTOV,  I  take  part  in  that. 

ri  ds  TiQOGtfXei  Ipol  KOQW&ICOV  ;  what  are  the  Corinthians  to  me? 

For  the  principle  of  this  rule,  as  it  respects  the  genitive,  see 
505-1. 

557. — Rem.  1.  The  dative  of  the  person  is  frequently  omitted. 

558. — Rem.  2.  The  nominative,  agreeing  with  the  iin person alT 
is  frequently  used  instead  of  the  genitive ;  as,  diaq)£QM  TI  GOI 
tovTO,  or  TOVTOV ;  how  does  this  concern  you? 

559. — Exc.  I.  4tl  and;x(»/  frequently  take  the 
accusative  of  the  person  with  the  genitive  of  the 
thing;  as, 

ov  yu.Q  GCOV  iis  dsi  &SGm$[A,d,TG)v,   for  I  do  not  want  your  oracles, 
ovds  vi  as  %QI]  ravzyg  dcpQOGvvyg,  you  have  no  need  of  this  folly.  • 

560. —  Obs.  2.  From  analogy,  the  derivative  substantives  #££«, 
yo^co,  yoa'tf,  are  often  construed  with  the  accusative  and  ereni- 

fl  '     As  ,     ^  ^  N         t  >     -          T  1  J      Jf  '*  '  ' 

tive  ;  as,  eps  on  %Q£co  yiyvezai  avri^\  I  have  need  of  it ;  rig  %Q£ia 
G  spov  ;  what  need  have  you  of  me  ? 

561. — -Exc.  II.  %QT},  nQtn&t,,  and  fai,  it  behoveth, 
govern  the  accusati\^  with  the  infinitive  ;  as, 

XQ*j  (W&G)  &oujaaG&cu  rtp>  efptprp,  we  ought  to  make  peace. 
GOtycorsQOvg  yaQ  dst  PQOTWV  dvai  ftsovg,  It  behoves  those  who  are 
wiser  than  men  to  be  gods. 

562. — ,0bs.  3.  The  dative  is  used  in  certain  phrases  in  which 
it  appears  to  depend  on  an  impersonal  or  some  other  verb  under- 
stood ;  viz., 

1st.  After  co£  to  show  that  a  proposition  is  affirmed,  not  aa 
generally  true,  but  only  with  respect  to  a  certain  person ;  as, 
paxQav  cog  ysgovn  TZQOvGrdtyg  b§6v,  you  have  travelled  a 
long  way  FOR  AN  OLD  MAN  ;  scil.  cog  (pawercu  yfyovvi,  long, 
as  it  appears  to  an  old  man. 

ineinsQ  8i  yevvaiog  cog  idovvi,  but  since  thou  art  noble  IN 
APPEARANCE  ;  i.  e.  co<?  el'/.cicca  IGU  idovri,  as  a  person 
having  seen  you  may  suppose. 

2d.  To  express  the  opinion  or  judgment  of  a  person  with  or 
without  cog;  as,  G  syco  TiunGa  voig  WQOVOVGIV  sv,  I  have 


250  CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   ACCUSATIVE.         §  150. 

done  honour  to  you  ACCORDING  TO  THE  JUDGMENT  OF  THE  WISE  ; 
i.  e.  tag  8oxu  TOIS,  <fec.  as  it  appears  to  those  who  are  wise. 
Hence  the  common  phrase,  w^  tyUH)  or  cag-  y  spot  (sell, 
according  to  my  judgment. 

For  the  dative  governed  by  adverbs,  see  655  and  664. 


§150.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

563.  —  The  accusative  in  Greek,  as  in  other  languages,  is  used 
to  express  the  immediate  object  of  a  transitive  active  verb,  that 
on  which  its  action  is  exerted,  and  which  is  affected  by  it  ;  as, 
^.a^avco  tip  dan  id  a,  I  take  THE  SHIELD.     When  used  to  ex- 
press the  remote  object  of  a  verb,  or  after  verbs  properly  intran- 
sitive, it  is  governed  by  a  preposition  understood. 

564.  —  RULE  XXV.    A  transitive  verb,  in  the 
active  or  middle  voice,  governs  the  accusative  ;  as, 


know  thyself. 

Trtv  Ttohv,  they  plundered  the  city. 

bv  dvd^a  ti^ag,          thou  honour  est  a  good  man. 

565.  —  Obs.  1.  Several  verbs  in  Greek  are  used  in  a  transitive 
sense,  and  have  an  accusative  as  their  immediate  object,  which 
in*  Latin  are  considered  as-  intransitive,  and  followed  by  some 
other  case.     They  are  chiefly  the  following  ;  viz., 

1st.  Tzsi&co  ;  as,  nEi&siv  twd,  to  persuade  any  one. 

2d.  vpQi^o)  ;  as,  V^QI^SIV  rivd,  to  insult  any  one  ;  sometimes 
e"$  viva. 

3d.  o&utem  ;  as,  ddMew  rivet,  to  injure^  or  do  injustice  to  any  one. 

4th.  Several  verbs  which  signify  to  assist,  to  profit,  to  injure  ;  as, 
coqpeta'oo,  ovqfti,  evsQysTza),  fihaTirco,  and  with  these  verbs  the 
adverbs  more,  very,  are  expressed  by  the  accusative  neuter 
of  the  adjectives  n'heiwv,  ^ag,  viz.  nkeor,  pfya. 

5th.  The  verbs  Oftfiflofqu,  dvrapsifiopcu,  TipaQZopcu  ;  as,  dpei- 
fieG'd'ai  rwa,  to  remunerate  any  one  ;  npwQeiG&ai  rwa. 

566.  —  Note  1.  Some  of  these  verbs  govern  other  cases,  but  then 
they  generally  convey  a  different  idea  ;  thus,  wqxlelv  twa,  to  ASSIST 
any  one  ;  wtptXtlv  iivi,  to  BE  USEFUL  to  any  one. 

567.  —  Obs.  2.  Many  verbs  are  followed  by  an  accusative,  not 
of  the  object  on  which  the  action  is  exerted,  but  to  which  it  has 


§  150.         CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE.  251 

an  immediate  reference.  Verbs  thus  used  are  properly  intransi- 
tive,  and  the  accusative  is  governed  by  the  force  of  a  preposition 
in  composition  with  the  verb,  or  understood  after  it.  These  are 
such  as  the  following  ;  viz., 

1st-.  TIQOGXVMCO  ;  as,  aQOGxvreiv  rwa,  to  bow  the  knee  to  any  one, 
to  adore. 

2d.  doQvyoQZG) ;  as,  doQvcpOQew  rwa,  to  be  a  spearsman  to  any 
one.  So  also, 

3d.    £7iiT()07T£V£wt  to  be  a  tutor  or  guardian. 

4th.  7*av&dv£iv,  to  escape  the  notice  of,  or  tg  remain  unknown  to. 

5th.  ftdveygf*,  to  come  before,  prevent,  or  anticipate. 

6th.  iTtikeineiv,  to  be  wanting  to,  or  to  fail. 

?th.  dnodio'QdGMw,  to  run  away  from. 

8th.  dnotJid%£6\)aij  to  ward  off  ;  b^vwai  or  ImoQxew  rivd,  to 
swear  by  any  one. 

9th.  To  these  may  be  added,  intransitive  v^rbs  expressing  some 
emotion  or  feeling ;  as,  to  be  ashamed  of,  or  afraid  of,  any 
one  ;  to  compassionate  any  one,  &c.  &c.,  which  are  followed 
by  the  accusative  of  the  object ;  thus,  aidovvrai  rov$  <X>Q%OV- 
rag,  they  respected  the  rulers  ; — rig  av  rdds  yifd'ijGeisv  ;  who 
would  rejoice  at  these  things  ? — dtyeir  it,  to  be  grieved  at 
any  thing  ; — &aQ$£w  tt,  to  take  courage  with  respect  to  any 
thing.  The  accusative  in  such  cases  may  be  governed  by  a 
preposition  understood  ;  as,  mi,  neQi,  xard  ;  or  by  the  par- 
ticiple of  a  transitive  active  verb,  to  be  supplied  ;  as,  o^uvy 
dxovcov,  <fec.  seeing,  hearing. 

&$8 — Note  2.  Instead  of  the  accusative,  many  of  these  verbs  are 
of&en  followed  by  a  genitive  or  dative,  according  to  the  rules  for  these 
cases. 

569. —  Obs.  3.  SPECIAL  RULE.  The  infinitive 
mood  or  part  of  a  sentence  is  often  used  as  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb  instead  of  tHe  accusa- 
tive ;  as, 

^/eyG)  ndvrag  eiacpt'QSiv,  I  say  THAT  YOU  SHOULD  ALL  CON- 
TRIBUTE. 
dst^drco  eo£  QVY,  dkq&ij  ^/^oa,  let  him  show  THAT  I  DO  NOT 

SPEAK  THE  TRUTH. 

570. — Note.  The  infinitive  is  also  used  instead  of  the  genitive  and 
dative  after  verbs  governing  these  cases.  714. 

571. —  06s.  4.  In  constructions  of  this  kind,  the  object  of  the 
verb  is  frequently  expressed  twice.  First,  in  a  noun  or  pronoun 


252  CONSTKUCTION  OF  THE   ACCUSATIVE.         §  150. 

• 

in  the  case  required  by  the  verb,  and  Secondly,  in  a  dependent 
clause  ;  as,  av&QWTiovg  re  olda  oia  nmbv&aGi  vy  enforce?,  1 
know  men  ivhat  things  they  -have  suffered  from  love  ;  *lowag  q>o- 
fiseou  pi]  [lETafidhkaai,  you  fear  the  lonians  lest  they  revolt  ;  &.Q 
Ifiov  [*£jj.?yr&e  bnoia  enQaGGOv  ;  do  you  remember  me  what  things 
I  did  ?  This  construction  is  especially  common  with  the  demon- 
strative pronoun  in  a  sort  of  apposition  with  the  clause  which  is 
the  object  of  the  verb,  396—5,  6  :  it  is  also  sometimes  used  in 
Latin  (see  Lat.  Gr.  445,  Obs.  2)  ;  but  the  English  idiom  requires 
these  and  similar  sentences  to  be  rendered  as  follows  :  "  /  know 
what  things  men  have  suffered  from  love  "  —  "  You  fear  that  the 
lonians  will  revolt"  —  "  Do  you  remember  what  things  I  did  ?" 

572.  —  Obs.  5.  The  accusative  is  often  governed  by  a  transi- 
tive verb  or  participle  understood  ;  as,  o~s  dij  —  qjyg  dsdQaxwae 
vd8e  (sc.  £(>  o07o5),  but  THEE,  (I  ask)  dost  thou  confess  ihou  didst 
these  things  ?  o  8e  ii\v  HOQtyVQida  (sc.  %ccw),  the  man  with  (hav- 
ing) the  purple  robe. 

573.  —  Obs.  6.    In  this  way,  the  words  ovopa,  vipog,  nlfftog, 
g,  and  others,  are  frequently  construed  in  the  accusative  ;  as, 

aradiov  to  n^arog  (sc.  %&M>),  a  race  course  (hav- 
ing) THE  BREADTH  of  a  stadium. 

574.  —  Obs.  t7.  In  like  manner  the  accusative,  apparently  in 
apposition  with  an  entire  proposition,  or  placed  in  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  leading  idea,  may  be  considered  as 
depending  on  some  preposition  or  verb  understood  ;  as,  'Elewp 
MVLVtoliw  Mwzksco  Wfirp  7iMQ(iv,  let  us  slay  Helen  (sc.  &g9  in 
order  to  ;  or,  noiovrrzg,  causing)  bitter  grief  to  Menelaus  ;  [MJTS- 
QCC  ds  —  a\p  ITCO  (i.  e.  7t8()l,  or  xara,  fti]T£Qa),  as  to  your  mother- 
let  her  return. 

575.  —  01)S.  8..  SPECIAL  RULE.    An  intransitive 
verb  used  transitively,  governs  the  accusative  ;  as, 

nokz\Ji£iv  Tioteiiov,  to  wage  war. 

This  is  done  — 

1st.  When  the  accusative  is  a  substantive  of  a  similar  significa- 
tion with  the  word  that  governs  it  ;  as,  £y  fiiov  rfiiGrov,  lie 
lives  a  very  agreeable  life. 

Note.  To  this  principle  of  construction  may  be  referred  such  phra- 
ses as  VQOVIIV  juiya  (sell,  tpgovtjfia),  to  be  proud  ;  a&dvara  /utv  q<(Jovti> 
(sc.  (pyovrjjuaTa),  think  as  becometh  an  immortal. 


2d.  When  they  only  signify  to  cause  that  state  or  feeling  which 
they  express  as  intransitives  ;  as,  fi^ev  %£IQCI,  he  CAUSED  the 


§  151.  ACCUSATIVE   AND   GENITIVE.  253 

hand  TO  MOVE  FORWARD,  i.  e.  he  stretched  out  the  hand  ;  ai 
nrflui  QKOVGI  yaka  x«J  pt'h,  the  fountains  CAUSED  milk 
and  honey  TO  FLOW  ;  i.  e.  the  fountains  flowed  with  milk  and 
honey.  So  Virgil : 

"  Et  durse  quercus  sudabunt  roscida  mella." 

576. —  Obs.  9.  A  passive  verb  used  in  an  active  sense  governs 
the  accusative,  195,  Obs.  5,  and  612  ;  as,  qqvrittcu,  aoQStav,  they 
refused  a  passage. 


§151.    VERBS   GOVERNING  THE  ACCUSATIVE   AND 
GENITIVE. 

577.  —  Many  transitive  active  verbs,  together  with  the  accusa- 
tive of  the  direct  object,  govern  also  another  word  to  which  the 
action  has  an  indirect  or  remote  reference,  in  the  genitive,  dative, 
or  accusative,  as  the  nature  of  that  reference  may  require. 

578.  —  EULE  XXVI.    Verbs  of  accusing,  con- 
demning, acquitting,  and  the  like,  govern  the  ac- 
cusative of  the  person  with  the  genitive  of  the 
crime  ;   as, 


i  GS  di-i).iag,  I  accuse  you  of  cowardice. 

os  Ttjg  airiag,  -  1  acquit  you  .of  this  blame. 

579.  —  The  genitive  after  verbs  of  accusing,  is  often  governed 
by  a  preposition  or  some  other  word  interposed,  by  which  the  ex- 
pression is  rendered  more  emphatic  ;  as, 

(pe)  rovrav  avrav          he  accused  me  of  these  same 

things. 
as  Tieol  ftavdrov,  I  accuse  thee  of  a  capital 

crime. 
In  atria  cpovov,  to  be  accused  of  murder. 

580.  —  06s.  1.  Verbs  of  accusing,  &c.  are  such  as  ins^eifu, 
yQacpopai,  diwxca,  STtawiaoftai,  to  accuse  or  criminate  /  cpsvyoo, 
to  be  accused,  or  to  defend  ;  aiQSco,  to  gain  one's  suit  ;  ccAco^cf,  to 
lose  one's  suit  ;  dixa^co,  to  judge  /  hay%dvco,  to  commence  a  suit  j 
ImhapfidvofAai,  and  dvvdafApdvoftai,  to  blame,  &c.  dftokva),  dyi- 
ri\ni,  dTioifjqcpi&pai,  &c.  to  acquit. 

581.  —  Obs.  2.  Verbs  of  this  signification  compounded  with 
Hard  take  the  person  in  the  genitive,  and  the  crime  or  punish- 


254:  ACCUSATIVE   AND   DATIVE.  §152. 

merit  in  the  accusative;  as,  xaTyyoQOVGi  (jov  Grdaiv,  they  charge 
sedition  against  you.  Sometimes  the  crime  or  punishment  is 
also  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  KaTayivwGxw  GOV  ftavdrov  or  ftavarov : 
but  the  punishment,  seldom,  except  the  word  tfavdrov,  and  the 
crime,  only  after  xctrrflOQEw  ;  as,  TtaQCivo^Mv  avrov  xarift'oysw. 

582. —  Obs.  3.  Verbs  of  accusing  sometimes  govern  the  dative ; 
as,  fiyxolw  o~oi  tTQOGdoGiav,  I  accuse  thee  of  treason. 


583. — KULE  XXVII.  Verbs  of  hearing,  enquir- 
ing, learning,  &c.  govern  the  genitive'of  the  per- 
son with  the  accusative  of  the  thing ;-  as, 

tjxovo~e  tov  dyy&ov  tavra,        he  heard  these  things  from  the 

messenger. 
nvv\)(iv£6&ai  tl  nvogj  to  hear  any  thing  from  any  one. 

The  genitive  here  is  probably  governed  by  ano  or  gx. 


§  152.  VERBS  GOVERNING  THE  ACCUSATIVE  AND 
DATIVE. 

584. — A  transitive  active  verb  governs  the  accusative  and 
dative  when,  together  with  the  immediate  object  of  the  action,  it 
is  followed  by  the  person  or  thing  in  relation  to  which  it  was  ex- 
erted. The  more  common  constructions  of  this  kind  are  com- 
prehended under  the  following  rule  ;  viz., 

585.— RULE  XXVIII.  Verbs  of  comparing, 
giving,  declaiming,  promising,  and  taking  away, 
govern  the  accusative  and  dative ;  as, 

eo[iai  $01  dexa  rakavra,  I  promise  you  ten  talents. 
&fwvcu  rolg  ak'Loig,         to  avert  the  plague  from  others. 

586. —  Ofo.  1.  After  verbs  of  promising,  declaring,  and  the 
like,  the  promise  or  declaration,  forming  part  of  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  number  of  sentences,  often  stands  as  the  accusative 
with  the  dative  of  the  person  ;  as, 

J4l&av$Qog  dmcTeils  roTg  "Ekfafli  ftebv  avrov  ifHjytuaa* 

ftai,  Alexander  ordered  the  Greeks  TO  VOTE  HIM  A  GOD. 
elni  pot  ri  avrcp  #(> //#!/,    tell  me  WHAT  YOU  WOULD  DO 

WITH  HIM. 


§153.       VERBS  GOVERNING  TWO   ACCUSATIVES.  255 

537. —  Qbs.  2.  Instead  of  the  dative  of  the  person,  the  accusa- 
tive with  ITQOZ  is  often  used,  and  sometimes  without  it. 

588. —  Obs.  8.  In  all  constructions  under  this  rule,  both  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  the  verb,  together  with  the  accusative  after  it,  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  expressing  the  amount  of  what  is  done  to  the  remote  object 
in  the  dative.  Thus  in  the  expression  narras  fabulam  surdo,  the  words 
narras  fabulam  express  the  whole  amount  of  what  is  done  (surdo)  TO  the 
deaf  man.  With  verbs  of  taking  away,  the  English  idiom  requires  the 
dative  to  be  rendered  by  from  ;  as,  eripuit  mihi  gladium,  "he  forced  the 
sword  away  FROM  me."  On  this  account,  some  have  supposed  that  the 
dative  in  such  expressions  in  Latin  is  governed  by  some  such  word  as 
existentem  understood  ;  and  others,  to  obviate  the  difficulty,  have  given 
the  Greek  an  ablative.  All  this  perplexity  arises  evidently  from  over- 
looking the  principle  of  the  construction.  While  the  English  idiom  ex- 
presses that  FROM  which  a  thing  is  taken  away,  the  Latin  and  Greek, 
with  no  less  elegance,  on  the  general  principle  of  the  rule,  express  in 
the  dative,  that  TO  which  the  act  of  taking  away  is  done.  Thus  in  the 
above  expression,  the  words  eripuit  gladium  together,  express  what  is 
done  (mihi)  TO  me.  So  also  Terence :  SENI  animam  extinguerem  ipsi ; — 
ADOLESCENTI  oculos  eriperem,  "TO  THE  OLD  MAN,  I  would  put  out  the 
breath ;-«— TO  THE  YOUNG  MAN,  I  would  put  out  the  eyes."  In  Greek,  Qi- 
litGti,  di/,ro  dtnaq,  TO  THEMISTIS,  he  took  away  the  cup  ;  i.  e.  taking  away 
the  cup  was  what  he  did  TO  Themistis  ;  according  to  the  English  idiom, 
he  took  away  the  cup  FROM  Themistis.  [See  Hunter's  Notes  on  Liv.  B.  I. 
Chap.  I.  line  2.  -^Eoese  Antenorique,  <fec.] 

589. —  Obs.  4.  Verbs  of  giving,  govern  the  genitive  and  da- 
tive when  their  direct  object  is  in  the  genitive,  according  to  Rule 
XV. ;  as,  per  ad  id  (apt  Got,  r&v 

with  you. 

~~  —    or  THB 


§  153.  VERBS  GOVERNING  Tl 

590. — Many  verbs  are  followed  by 
the  immediate,  but  also  of  the  remote  object  7* 

591. — RULE  XXIX.  Verbs  of  asking  and  teach- 
ing,  clothing,  concealing,  depriving  •  speaking  or 
doing  well  or  ill  to,  and  some  others,  govern  two 
accusatives,  the  one  of  a  person,  the  other  of  a 
thing ;  as, 

0i]fiaiov$  XQt'jpaTa  yrijaav,  they  sought  money  from  the 

Thebans. 

rovg  Tiaidag  GGM^QO-      they  teach  their  youths  pro- 
',  ^  bity. 

avrov  ;  what  shall  I  do  to  him  ? 


256  VERBS   GOVERNING  TWO  ACCUSATIVES.       §  153. 

^ 

592. —  Obs.  1.  The  immediate  object  of  verbs  which  signify 
"  to  do"  or  "  to  speak"  is  the  action  done  or  the  word  spoken  ; 
the  remote  object  is  the  person  or  thing  to  which  it  is  done  or 
spoken;  thus, 

Ttoiziv  dyatfa  (scil.  fyya)  twa,  to  do  good  to  any  one. 

Lfyeiv  xaxd  (sc.  mrj)  viva,  to  speak  evil  of  any  one. 

593. — Instead  of  these  adjectives  with  verbs  of  this  significa- 
tion, the  adverbs  zv  and  xax&s  ara  frequently  joined  ;  thus,  xa- 
x«£  nomv  iwa,  to  do  a  person  evil ;  sv  kfyi-iv  nvd,  to  speak  ivell 
of  a  person.  Sometimes  these  words  are  in  composition  with  the 
verb;  as,  evhoyi-iv,  xaxokoyzw,  evtyfi&eTvj  xaxovQyslv — in  which 
the  accusative  becomes  the  direct  object,  and  is  governed  by  the 
compound  transitive  verb;  as,  xaxovQy&v  rtvd,  to  maltreat  a 
person.  This  corresponds  to  the  English  mode  of  expression,  to 
maltreat,  a  person,  to  eulogize  va  person. 

594. — On  the  same  principle  several  verbs,  such  as  hoidoQt'o- 
pai,  kvpaivofAai,  <fec.  which  are  usually  followed  by  a  dative,  fre- 
quently take  an  accusative;  as,  okqv  Tip  no'Liv  kvftaivsG&cu, 
to  abuse  the  whole  CITY. 

595. —  Obs?  2.  When  a  verb  admits  of  either  of  the  words 
that  follow  it,  as  its  immediate  object,  they  are  both  put  in  the 
accusative  ;  thus,  Ivdvsw  viva  rov  %wa)va9  to  clothe  a  person  with 
a  tunic,  and,  to  put  a  tunic  on  a  person,  convey  the  same  idea. 

596. —  Obs.  3.  A  transitive  verb,  besides  the  accusative  of  the 
immediate  object,  may  be  followed  by  the  accusative  of  a  noun 
of  similar  signification  with  itself;  as,  or  Z&vg  qw/Ui  Tzavrofyv 
qjdorrjra,  whom  Jupiter  loves  with  great  affection  ;.  Ivixqae  rovg 
flaQfidQOVG  i}]v  tv  MMQCC&COVI,  [Aa%qVj  he  conquered  the  barbarians 
in  the  battle  of  Marathon  ;  aQxtjcrar  Ttdrrag  rovg  GTQaTuxtrag 
vovg  [teyiGrovg  OQxovg,  they  BOUND  all  the  soldiers  with  the 
greatest  OATHS. 

597. —  Obs.  4.  When  TZoisTc&ai,  with  a  noun  derived  from  a 
transitive  verb,  is  used  as  a  circumlocution  for  the  verb  itself,  it 
will  of  course  be  followed  by  two  accusatives ;  thus,  n 
Giv  for  IIOLV&WVZIV  ;  vTTOftvqGw  noisiG&ai  for 
rip  aQ7iayftv  for  aQnd&iv ;  as,  GXEvq  v,(u 
aoiqGdpsvog,  plundering  the  furniture  and  slaves  ;  sc. 
making  plunder  of,  &c. 

59S.~Obs.  5.  Verbs  which  signify  to  call,  or  name,  choose, 
reckon,  make,  constitute,  and  the  like,  besides  the  accusative  of  the 
object,  "take  also  the  accusative  of  the  name,  office,  character,  &c. 


§  154.   CASES  CONSTRUCTED  WITH  PASSIVE  VOICE.        257 

ascribed  to  it;  as,  GTQarriyov  avrov  ast*$&£ev,he  appointed 
HIM  GENERAL.  In  this  coDstructioD  the  verb  slvai  is  frequently 
interposed ;  thus,  GocpiGryv  6*Ofui£<ri>Gt  TOV  HvdQay  or  rbv 
wvaif  they  call  the  man  a  philosopher,  743-2d. 

599. —  Obs.  6.  The  accusative  neuter  of  pronouns  and 
tives  is  often  admitted  in  this  construction,  as  well  as  with  verbs 
which  govern  the-  genitive  or  dative,  when  the  accusative  of  the 
substantive  could  not  be  used  ;  as, 

TOVTO  pe  tjdwqas,  he  injured  me  in  this. 

vi  %QWIJL<M  avrcp  ;  for  what  may  I  use  it  ? 

600. —  Obs.  7.  Instead  of  the  second  accusative,  many  verbs 
under  this  rule  frequently  take  the  genitive  or  dative ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  some  verbs  which  are  usually  followed  by  an  ac- 
cusative with  the  -genitive,  or  dative,  sometimes  take  the  double 
accusative  ;  thus,  og  dtj  noM.d  xdx  w&QMTtoiGi  (for  avflQ<Qrtov$} 
IcoQyEi,  who  verily  inflicted  many  evils  on  men  ;  dnoGTtQEiv  viva, 
id  XQ/jpara,  and  TWV  XQ^pdrow,  to  deprive  a  person  of  his  goods. 

601. — Obs.  8.  The  second  accusative  is  often  to  be  explained 
by  a  preposition  after  such  verbs  as  HQOXO&A&),  dvayxd^co,  dno- 
XQWOficU,  and  verbs  which  signify  to  divide,  as,  dicuQt'a),  dd^co, 
&G.  ;  as,  nQOxafaiG&ai  two,  (s$)  Gnovddg,  to  invite  a  person  to 
a  treaty ;  KvQog  to  GrQdrevpa  xar&etpie  (eig)  Scodexa  fit'Qq, 
Cyrus  divided  the  army  into  twelve  parts. 

602. — Note.  With  verbs  of  dividing,  the  whole  which  is  divided  is 
sometimes  put  in  the  genitive,  and  the  word  pigoq,  fioi^a,  <fec.,  referred 
to  the  verb ;  as,  dodixa  Jligaow  q>v).a,l  (JW^vTat,  the  tribes  of  the  Per- 
sians were  divided  into  twelve,  for,  the  Persians  were  divided  into  twelve 
tribes  ;  /tolgaq  6?  tiliv  ?£  xott  innfow  xal  o7t).vtu)vt  literally,  he  divided 
the  parts  of  cavalry  and  infantry  into  six ;  i.  e.  he  divided  the  cavalry 
and  infantry  into  six  parts.  This  construction  is  imitated  in  Latin,  Cic. 
de  Orat.  Deinde  eorurn  generum  quasi  qucedam  membra  dispertiaty  for  ea 
genera,  quasi  in  qucedam  membra,  &e. 


§  154.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  WITK  THE  PASSIVE 
VOICE. 

603. — The  passive  voice  is  usually  followed  by  a  genitive  of 
the  doer,  governed  by  the  prepositions  vno,  Ix,  TtaQa,  nQog,  and 
consequently,  the  government  of  the  case  falls  under  the  rules  for 
prepositions ;  as,  ^  wxco  vrto  TOV  y.ctxov,  be  not  overcome  of  evil. 
Sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  it  follows  the  preposition  in  the 
dative  ;  as,  vno  GarQaTTai^  o'lowziG&ai,  to  be  governed  by  viceroys. 


258        CASES  CONSTEUCTED  WITH  PASSIVE  VOICE.   §  154. 

But  instead  of  this,  and  equivalent  to  it,  the  dative  without  a  pre- 
position is  common  ;  hence  the  two  following  rules  ;  viz., 


I    604.  —  RULE  XXX.    Passive   verbs   frequently 
govern  the  dative  of  the  doer  ;  as, 

STtQcirTero  avzoig  ra  rfg  no-      the  affairs  of  the  city  were  con- 
heoog,  ducted  by  them. 

poi,  it  has-been  done  by  me. 


605.  —  Note.  This  construction  most  commonly  takes  place  with  the 
perfect  passive,  and  the  dative  is  equivalent  to  the  genitive  with  VTTO, 
which  is  in  common  use  ;  as  also  nqoq,  and  sometimes  naga,  I/,  or  e|, 
and  0,716.  On  the  same  principle,  the  verbal  adjectives  in  ipq  and  Tf'o<?, 
having  a  passive  signification,  govern  the  dative  of  the  doer,  528, 


606. — RULE  XXXI?  When  a  verb  in  the  active 
voice  governs  two  cases,  in  the  passive  it  retains 
the  latter  case  ;  as, 

XffVtffOQSOficu  xkomjg,  I  am  accused  of  theft 

ldo\ii]  poi,  TTaca  l^ovaic^  all  power  is  given  to  me. 

fjiovGixqv  [iw  VTTO  Aa^nQOV  being  taught  music  by  Lam- 

itcu$8vd'£ig,  prus. 

607. —  Obs.  1.  Any  passive  verb  may  be  followed  by  an  ac- 
cusative of  similar  signification  with  itself,  on  the  principle  laid 
down  596  ;  as,  ivnr^rai  Tityyag  noMdg,  he  is  struck  with  many 
blows. 

608. —  Obs.  2.  When  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  governs  the 
accusative  with  the  dative  of  a  person,  the  passive  frequently  re- 
tains the  former  case,  the  latter  being  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
verb.  Thus,  the  same  idea  may  be  expressed  in  three  different 
ways;  viz., 

1st.  With  the  active  voice  ;  as,  6  dtftiog  IniGrevGS  AvxovQycp.  tjp 
rqg  nofawg  ini^fau&i  ^ie  people  committed  the  care  of  the 
'    city  to  Lycurgus. 

2d.  By  the  passive  voice  with  the  latter  case  ;   as,  /IvxovQyop 
*  iniGrsv&ri  VTTO  rov  dfaov  r\  vrjg  nokewg  Mtiflsltwi,  the  man- 
agement of  the  city  was  entrusted  to  Lycurgus. 
3d.  By  the  passive  voice  with  the  former  case,  according  to  the 
Obs. ;  as,  ^dvxovQyog  rrtv  rijg  nokecog  imp&faltt*  VTTO  rov 
dtjfiov  Imari-vO'Tj,  Lycurgus  was  entrusted  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  city  by  the  people. 


§  155.  CONSTRUCTION   OF   CIRCUMSTANCES.  259 


The  following  are  examples*  of  this  construction  :  ol  f 

qv7.ay.fj-v,  those  entrusted  with  the  watch  ;  for  ofe  y  <pv- 
7.axtj  zniTtiQiiTTTO  :  r^v  d'  Ix  X&-QWP  aQTid^o^ai,  she  is  torn  from 
my  hands  ;  for  /}  f  Ix  %EIQG)V  aona^rca. 

609.  —  Hence,  also,  such  phrases  as  the  following  :  Aiftionzg 
naQdufa'ae  iwutpwoi,  the  Ethiopians  girded  ivith  panthers'*  skins  ; 
7.817181  wlrbf1  SffleyQOtpix&np>  £vv\}f]fiara,  he  leaves  a  tablet  inscri- 
bed with  writings  ;  because  in  the  active  voice  it  would  have 
been  Ivdnrsw  AlftionzGi  TiaQdaksag—tyyQdcpew  Zvvd'fjpara  ftefc 
rep.  The  accusative,  in  almost  all  such  cases,  may  be  explained 
by  supplying  xard.  This  construction  is  not  used  in  Latin,  ex- 
cept in  a  few  instances,  which  .  are  manifest  Graecisms  ;  e.  g.,  in- 
scripti  noinina  regum  flores,  "flowers  inscribed  with  the  names 
of  kings."  Lat.  Gr.  525. 

6  1  0  —  Note.  This  construction,  used^in  Latin  only  as  a  Grsecism,  is 
common  in  English  with  such  verbs  as,  to  ask,  teach,  offer,  promise, 
pay,  tell,  allow,  deny,  and  the  like  ;  as,  He  allowed  me  great  liberty  ; 
passively,  great  liberty  was  allowed  me,  or,  I  was  allowed  great  liberty. 
So,  "They  were  offered  (to)  me,"  or,  "I  was  offered  them."  See  Ana- 
'lytical  and  Practical  English  Grammar,  812,  813.  Crombie's  Etymolo- 
gy, P-  2m 

61  1.—  Obs.  3.  On  the  same  principle'  the  part  affected  (505-3), 
is  often  put  in  the  accusative  after  the  passive  voice  ;  thus,  instead 
of  to  TQavpd  fiov  emdi-irai,  my  wound  is  bound  up,  the  genitive 
is  changed  into  the  nominative  to  the  verb,  and  the  nominative 
or  part  affected  into  the  accusative  ;  thus,  (^oa)  eaidsouw  t  b 
TQavpa,  I  am  bound  up  AS  TO  MY  WOUND  ;  TlgOfiiffrevs  ly.ei- 
QSTO  to  //??«(>,  'literally,  Prometheus  was  torn  out  AS  TO  HIS. 
LIVER  ;  i.  e.  his  liver  was  torn  out.  See  also  622. 

612.  —  Obs.  4.  When  the  passive  is  used  in  a  middle  sense 
(195,  Obs.  5),  it  becomes  deponent,  and  may  be  followed  by  an 
accusative  in  .the  same  manner  as  the  active  voice  ;  as,  TiaQSGxsv- 
Ttdvra  eftkeov,  having  provided  every  thing,  they  sailed^' 
TtOQSiar,  they  refused  a  passage,  5Y6. 


§155.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

613. — Words  and  phrases  are  often  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  in  an  adverbial  manner,  to  express  some  CIR- 
CUMSTANCE connected  with  the  idea  of  the  simple  sentence,  and 
which  do  not  depend  for  their  case  on  any  word  in  the  sentence 


260  REMOTE   CAUSE   OR   ORIGIN.  §156. 

to  which  they  belong,  but  on  a  preposition,  or  adverb,  or  other 
word  understood ;  as, 

l%ekavv£i  ara&fiovg  dvo  eig  'locovg,  xca  tvr&v&a  epewev  ^/&f*- 
Qag  tQSig,  he  advanced  TWO  DAYS' JOURNEY  to  Issus,  and 
remained  there  THREE  DAYS. 

ueydky  GTto-vdy  advra  IrtQUTTETO,  every  thing  was  done  WITB 

GREAT  HASTE. 

Under  the  general  name  of  circumstances  may  be  included 
words  which  indicate,  1.  The  remote  cause  or  origin,  §  156  ;  2 
A  particular  qualification  or  direction  of  a  general  expression, 
§  157  ;  3.  Cause,  manner,  or  instrument,  §  158  ;  4.  Place,  §  159  ; 
5.  Time,  §  160  ;  6,  Measure,  §  161  ;  7.  Price,  §  162  ;  8.  Excla- 
mation, §  163. 


§  156.  I.  THE  EEMOTE  CAUSE  OB  ORIGIN. 

614.  —  EULE  XXXII.  The  cause,  source,  or  ori-  ' 
gtn,  and  the  part  affected,  are  put  in  the  genitive  ; 
as, 

g  rrtg  vv%qe,         happy  from  his  fortune. 
t-l  avzov  r^g  dyerfe,    he  loves  him  on  account  of  his  virtue. 
to  take  a  wolf  by  the  ears. 


615.  —  Obs.  1.    Instead  of  the  genitive,  the  accusative  is  often 
used,  governed  by  xatd,  did,  &c.  .understood. 

616.  —  Obs.  2.    The  circumstance  of  cause  expressed  by  the 
genitive,  differs  from  that  expressed  by  the  dative  ;  the  genitive 
expresses  the  remote  or  moving  cause  —  the  dative,  the  immediate 
oj  effective  cause. 

617.—  Obs.  3.  The  material  of  which  a  thing  is  made  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  genitive  ;  as,  a%ediai  dupfteQav,  rafts  made  of 
SKINS.  See  456. 

618.  —  Note.  The  genitive  of  the  material  is  considered  by  some 
grammarians  as  depending  on  ex  or  ano  understood  ;  and  an  argument 
in  favour  of  this  ellipsis  is  drawn  from  the  circumstance  of  EX  or  CCTTO 
being  sometimes  expressed.  In  all  such  passages,  the  preposition  seems 
to  contain  a  more  direct  reference  to  the  material  than  could  be  done 
by  the  common  construction,  especially  if  a  passive  participle  be  like- 
wise used  ;  as,  iSqtx,  f£  atia^avroi;  ntnovrjiAivt},  a  seat  made  of  adamant. 
Sometimes  the  dative  is  used  for  the  genitive,  when  the  material  of 


§  157.  CIRCUMSTANCES   OF  LIMITATION.  261 

which  any  thing  is  made  may  be  considered  also  as  the  means  by  which 
it  is  made;  as,  at  fiev  yag  xigatffffi,  verti'i/arai,,  at  3*  £ki(pavtt>, 
some  were  made  of  HORN,  some  of  IVORY. 


§157.  H.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  LIMITATION. 

619. — A  particular  qualification  of  a  general  expression,  made 
in  English  by  fhe  phrase  "  in  respect  o/,"  "  with  regard  to"  is 
expressed  by  the  genitive  and  dative  ;  or,  more  briefly,  as  fol- 
lows : 

620. — KULE  XXXIII.  Respect  wherein  is  ex- 
pressed in  the 'genitive,  sometimes  in  .the  dative, 
444. 

I.  In  the  GEOTTIVE  ;  as, 

syyvrara  avrqj  lifjii  f&ovg,  lam  very  near  him  in  respect  of  kin. 

dacvg  d&>dgt>Wj  thick  with  trees. 

nlrfiioi  alifawv,  near  (in  respect  of)  each  other. 

621. — The  genitive  is  used  : 

1.  After  f^Ei,  in  tlje  sense  of  to  be  (se  habere),  with  such  adverbs 
as  EV,  cog,  OTicog,  TIMS,  ovrcog,  xalc>£,  <fec. ;  as,  naidziag  ovzcog 
$%ei,  he  is  so  in  respect  of  learning  ;  x«Aw^  fytxv  [**&*]$)  to  be 
pretty  drunk  ;  faco  'is  used  in  the  same  way  ;  as,  TtUog  rov 
filov  ev  %xow,  Tellies  being  well  advanced  in  (respect  of)  life. 

2.  After  other  verbs ;  as,  inefy&a&cu  aQ^og,  to  be  in  haste  with 
respect  to  the  battle. 

3.  After  adjectives ;  as,  aTicug  aQQtvcav  Ticu'dow,  childless  with 
respect  to  sons  ;  i.  e.  without  male  offspring. 

4.  With  adverbs  ;  as,  KQOGG)  aQer^g  <m/xa*>,  to  carry  it  far  with 
respect  to  virtue. 

5.  With  substantives ;  as,  iyy^Jia,  ii]q   Xiov,  the  relation  con- 
cerning Chios. 

6.  With  entire  propositions ;  as,  el  narQog  vx^ei  TW  <&QCW  pov 
xcc^co?  TtQUGGsiv  doxzlv,  if  he  possesses  any  care  of  his 
father,  IN  RESPECT  OF  HIS  APPEARING  TO  PROSPER. 

622. —  Obs.  1.  Respect  wherein  is  also  put  in  the  accusative 
governed  by  xara  understood ;  viz.,  when  the  idea  expressed  by 
a  verb  or  adjective  is  to  be  more  accurately  determined  by  an 
additional  circumstance  ;  as,  rbv  Sdxrvlov  dtyw,  I  am  pained 


262  CIRCUMSTANCES   OF   LIMITATION.  §  157. 

IN  MY  FINGER;  %€QSIWV  ov  ds'pag,  ovds  cpQzvag,  inferior  nei- 
ther in  BODY  nor  MIND  ;  nodag  c&xvg  J4%Mev$,  Achilles  swift 


OF  FOOT. 

623.  —  Note  1.  This  is  the  construction  so  often  imitated  by  the  Latin 
poets  ;  thus,  Os  humerosque  deo  similis.     Lat.  Gr.  538. 

624.  —  Note  2.  The  accusative  in  this  construction  is  in  signification 
adverbial,  and  hence  is  frequently  used  as  an  adverb  ;  thus,  aqxyv,  above 
al^  originally  ;  rct/ot;,  quickly  ;  TC^OC;,  finally  ;  ryv  TT^om/r,  at  first,  <fec., 
xccTce  being  understood.     So  also  such  expressions  as  400  ivaviiov,  on  the 
contrary  ;  TO  fofOju^oy,  according  to  the  proverb,  &c. 

II.  In  the  DATIVE. 

625.  —  This  case  is  used  in  a  sense  nearly  similar, 
to  express  that  with  respect-  to  which  a  thing  is 
affirmed  to  be  or  take  place.     This  usage,  in  Greek, 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  : 

1.  a^iog  i]v  ftavdrov  ry  n  oh  si,  he  was  worthy  of  death,  with 
respect  TO  THE  STATE  ;  i.  e.  he  was  guilty  of  a  capital  crime 
against  the  state.  * 

2.  %al  di]  fi&dt&>  %ahs7i:oTo  yjokoio   T^  7.  e  fiasco,  and  now  they 
laid  aside  their  grievous  anger  against  (with  respect  to)  TELE- 
MACHUS  ;  so  tycoye  Xitferd/gtu  ./^jftXjL^f  f4S^efi£i>  %6lov,  I  will 
pray  him  to  lay  aside  his  anger  against  ACHILLES. 

3.  to  [Mv  e^w-d-ev  aTitopevcp  aw  pa  ovx  ciyav  fieQpbv  rtVj   the 
surface  of  the  body  was  not  very  hot  WHEN  ONE  TOUCHED  IT 
(lit.  with  respect  to  one  touching  it). 

4.  *E7Tt8ajtroG  IGTI  7io\ig  lv  ds^ia  scfthsovri  iw  'Jomov  xoP.- 
TIOV,  Epidamnus  is  a  city  on  the  right  hand  A»I  YOU  ENTER 
(with  respect  to  one  entering)  the  Ionian  bay. 

5.  dvcodendrrj  ds  oi  r^g  xeipevcp,  the  twelfth  day  SINCE  HE  lay 
(to  him  lying). 

6.  'ifQaxksi  plv  8*1   oca  avrol  Alyvnnoi  cpaci  uvai  srsa  Ig 
Jj[ia6iv,  the  Egyptians  themselves  tell  how  many  years  passed 
FROM  HERCULES  (or  since  the  death  of  Hercules)  to  Amasis. 

7.  ii\wjp  aQVVfiwoi  Merekdcp,  looking  for  the  o-dvantage  (or 
pleasure)  OF  MENELAUS. 

8.  oQ^rjcdpevoi  &SOIGI,  dancing  in  honour  O/*THE  OODS. 

626.—  Rem.  Respect  wherein  is  also  sometime!-    .'/^res&ed  in 
the  dative  governed  by  iv  understood  ;  as, 

nodi  Tct%vgy  swift  of  foot. 


§  158.         CAUSE,    MAKNEK,    AND  INSTKUHENT.  263 

§  158.  III.   THE  CAUSE,  MANNER,  AND  INSTRUMENT. 

627.  —  RULE  XXXIV.  The  cause,  manner,  and 
instrument,  are  put  in  the  dative  ;  as, 

qpo/ftp  mgaxtovy  I  did  it  from  fear. 

rcpde  idp  TQOTIG),  it  happened  in  this  manner. 

to  strike  with  a  stick. 


628.  —  Obs.  1.  The  CAUSE  or  motive  may  be  considered  as  in- 
ternal or  external.     The  internal  cause  represents  the  act  as  pro- 
ceeding from  some  particular  .  state  or  disposition  of  the  subject, 
or  quality  residing  in  it,  and  contains  the  answer  to  the  question 
from  what?  or  whence?  and  consequently  may  generally  be  ren- 
iered  from  :  evvoia  y  avdw,  I  speak  FROM  GOOD-WILL.     The 
external  cause  represents  the  action  as  caused  by  something  with- 
out the  agent,  and  may  generally  be  rendered  "  for,"  "  on  ac- 
count of,"  sometimes  "  according  to,"  "in  consequence  of;"  as, 
XQrjfiOGW  STtaiQOfievog,  elated  with,  or  in  consequence  of  riches  ; 
.Asovrwwv  xajotxiasi,  for  (i.  e.  in  order  to)  the  re-establishment  of 
the  Leontines,  the  motive  being  derived  from  the  end  ;  fi-avpd^G) 
rrj  aTtoxheiGei  pov  i&v  avhtov,  I  am  astonished  AT  the  shutting 
up  of  my  gates. 

629.  —  Obs.  2.  In  this  construction  the  dative  expresses  the 
nearer  or  immediate  cause,  the  more  remote  being  usually  ex- 
pressed by  the^genitive,  or  by  did  with  the  accusative  (615)  ;  as, 
<&r#3?efc0e  Gaparav  dia  r^v  Girodeiav  v7i£%wQovv,  they  (the 

~  Lacedemonians)  gave  way,  from  the  weakness  of  their  bodies  in-  "* 

duced  BY  WANT  OF  PROVISIONS. 

630.  —  Obs.  3.  The  dative  of  the  cause  is  probably  governed 
by  the  preposition  a^g//,   neQij  or  Ini  understood.     Sometimes 
they  are  expressed  ;  but  whether  with  or  without  a  preposition, 
the  whole  expression  is  adverbial  in  its  nature  ;  and  hence,  disre- 
garding its  case,  a  neuter  adjective  or  pronoun  is  sometimes  put 
in  the  same  construction  with  it,  in  the  accusative  ;  as,  sif  rwog 
pfya  tjv  to  dcofecc  cpvaei,  rj  tQOCpfi,  n  <*[*><$  or  SQ  a,  if  the  body  of 
a  person  was  large  naturally,  or  by  nourishment,  or  BOTH 

631.  —  Obs.  4.  The  dative  of  the  MANNER  is  governed  by  iv 
or  GVV  understood,  and  may  be  considered  as  adverbial.     Hence, 
perhaps,  verbs  of  punishing  are  followed   by  the  punishment  in 
the  dative;  as,  Qifuow  twa  ftavarcp,  gwyjj,  &c.  to  punish  any 
one  with  DEATH,  with  BANISHMENT,  &c. 


264:  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  PLACE.  §159. 

632.  —  Obs.  5.  The  dative  of  the  INSTRUMENT  or  MEAN  may  be 
a  person  ;  as.  roig  naQOVGiv  BTefyi&v,  he  buift  the  wall  BY 

MEANS  OF  THOSE  WHO  WERE  PRESENT.       It   is    also    put  with    Sub- 

staittivcs  ;    as,  x&ypfts  TGJ  GWfiari,  motions  made  WITH  THE 

BODY. 


633.  —  Note.  Hence  the  construction  of  yQ^a&a^  with  the  dative; 
that  which  we  use  being  considered  as  an  instrument.     On  the  same 
principle,  the  dative  is  put  after  other  verbs  which  imply  the  idea  of 
using;  rfx/m/^fdOat-  rolq  Ttoofffrfv  oVo^oy^tVot?,  to  infer  from  what  was 
granted  ;  i.  e.  to  use  as  proofs  the  things  formerly  granted. 

634.  —  Obs.  6.  Instead  of  the  dative,  the  prepositions  Iv,  ano, 
Sid,  GVV,  with  their  cases,  are  sometimes  used. 


§  159.  IV.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  PLACE. 

635.  —  The  circumstances  of  place  respect  motion  to,  or  from, 
or  through,  a  place,  and  motion  or  rest  in  a  place;  in  all  of 
which  the  Greek  writers  generally  use  a  proper  name  with  a 
preposition  ;  thus,  «'f  Xftiptov,  from  Athens  ;  elg  BQiravvlav,  to 
Britain  ;  ev  ThfLty,  in  Pylos  ;  dia  T^g  nofaag,  through  the  city. 
But, 

636.  —  RULE  XXXV.  The  place  where,  without 
a  preposition,  is  expressed  in  the  gen^ive  or  da- 
tive; as, 

g,  at  Argos  ;         MctQa&toM,  at  Marathon. 


637.  —  Obs.  1.  In  this  construction  the  genitive  may  be  gov- 
erned by  ini  or  TIBQI]  and  the  dative  by  iv  understood.     The 
preposition  is  also  often  understood  before  common  nouns  de- 
noting place  ;  as,  8Q%£6&ov  xhiciqv,  they  two  come  to  the  tent. 

638.  —  Obs.  2.  The  genitive  after  eig,  to  a  place,  or  Iv,  in  a 
place,  is  governed  by  a  substantive  understood  ;  as,  aV  adov  (sc. 
Sopor),  to  Hades  ;  iv  s/Qyeog  (sc.  aolei),  at  Argos,  451. 

639.  —  Obs.  3.  The  terminations  fti  and  GI,  added  to  a  noun, 
denote   AT   a  place  ;    as,  ityQo&i,   in  the  country;    &{^ym9  at 
Thebes  ;  —  ds  and  ere,  to  a  place  ;  as,  ^frfptttifo,  to  Athens  ; 
GiTjvde,  to  the  tent  ;  —  &w  and  #e,  FROM  a  place  ;  as, 

avellero  fy%og,  he  took  a  spear  FROM  THE  TENT,  324. 


§  160,  161.      CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  MEASURE.  265 

^'  ' 

§160.V.    CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  TIME. 

640. — RULE  XXXVI.  Time  when  is  put  in  the 
dative  ;  time  how  long,  in  the  accusative  ;  thus, 

WHEN  ;  as,  rtfJitQK  tQirrj,  on  the  third  day. 
HOW  LONG  ;  as,  rgeig  okovg  pijvag  TtaQK^ww,  he  remained 
three  whole  months. 

641. —  Obs.  1.  When  the  reference  is  to  a  fixed  time  at  which 
a  thing  took  place,  the  dative  is  used  as  in  the  rule  ;  but  if  the 
idea  of  duration  is  implied,  it  is  put  in  the  accusative ;  as,  rag 
7;^4>«£  xal  rag  vvxrag,  by  day  and  by  night ;  sometimes  in  the 
genitive  ;  as,  Ixdxcocs  fify  (HQaxtyefy  rwv  aQort'Qow  mW,  Her- 
cules distressed  us  informer  years. 

642. —  Obs.  2.  Time  how  long,  may-  respect  the  time  during 
which,  since  which,  or  after  which,  some  event  took  place.  The 
first  is  put  in  the  accusative,  as  above  ;  the  second  is  more  com- 
monly expressed  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  n  o  A  Z  o  v  avrovg  ov%  swQa- 
y.a  XQOVOV,  I  have  not  seen  them  for  A  LONG  TIME;  the  third, 
generally  in  the  dative  ;  as,  ov  nolJkaig  rmtQaig  vareQor,  not  ma- 
ny days  after.  But  sometimes  in  the  genitive,  when  protracted 
and  indefinite;  as,  IXEIGE  ovx  dcpwveTrai  irwv  [AVQICOV,  he 
comes  not  thither  in  TEN  THOUSAND  YEARS.  In  this,  however, 
there  is  some  variety. 

c-iil  jfi'tt  ,^I.!-i?baJf'jr:  •.    

§161.  VI.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  MEASURE. 

The  circumstances  of  measure  respect  magnitude,  distance, 
and  the  measure  of  excess,  as  follows  : 

643. — EULE  XXXVIL  The  measure  of  magni- 
tude is  put  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 

dvcodexa  7tq%eoi)v,  a  statue  of  twelve  CUBITS. 


644.— RULE  XXXVIII.  The  measure  of  dis- 
tance is  put  in  the  accusative,  sometimes  in  the 
dative ;  as, 

12 


266  EXCLAMATION.  §  162,  163. 

"EcpEGog  antyzi  tQioov  tffw^m  bSov>  or  bdcp,  Ephesus  is  distant 

three  days'  JOURNEY. 
TtsvrexaiSexa  Ttfyeig  inpco&q  rb  vdotQ,  the   ufater  rose  fifteen 

CUBITS. 

645. —  Obs.  When  measure  of  magnitude  or  distance  is  found 
in  the  nominative  after  a  substantive  verb,  or  in  the  accusative 
after  an  infinitive,  the  construction  is  according  to  436. 


646. — RULE  XXXIX.  The  measure  of  excess  is 
put  in  the  dative  after  the  comparative  degree ; 
as, 

ivnavtoj  7iQ£G@vreQog,  older  by  a  year. 

647. —  Obs.  Hence  the  expressions  Ttollcp,  oMycp,  @Qa%8i,  &c. 
with  the  comparative.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  put  in  the  ac- 
cusative ;  as,  nokv  juet£a>?,  much  greater  ;  Ttollov  dpswcov,  much 
better. 


§162.  VII.  CIKCUMSTANCE  OF  PEICE. 

648. — RULE  XL.  The  price  of  a  thing"  is  put  in 
the  genitive ;  as, 

dbg  VOVTO  SQa%pjg,  give  this  for  a  drachma. 

649. —  Obs.  The  price  is  put  sometimes  in  the  dative,  with  the 
preposition  Ini  expressed  or  understood  ;  as,  Inl  IIIG&CP  pzyakoi), 
for  a  great  reward.  Sometimes  in  the  accusative  ;  as,  nmQ&GKKi 
b  XCMOS  rtdvta  n^og  agyvQiov,  the  wicked  man  sells  every  thing 
for  silver. 


§  163.  VIII.  EXCLAMATION. 

650. — RULE  XLI.  Exclamations  of  praise,  in- 
dignation, compassion,  <fec.,  are  put  in  the  geni- 
tive, sometimes  in  the  accusative  ;  as, 

trig  dvcudeiag,  0  the  impudence  ! 

qwv  rov  drdgog,  Alas  !  the  man. 

&  £ju*  deihutov,  0  wretched  me  ! 


§  164,  165.        ADVEEBS  AS  PREPOSITIONS.  267 

65 1 . —  065.  Sometimes  with  the  genitive,  there  is  an  addition 
of  the  nominative  ;  as,  oi'poi  t&v  spar  f'yco  xaxow',  ah  !  my  mise- 
ries. 7co,  ovai,  01,  and  co,  govern  the  dative ;  as,  i«  poi,  woe 
is  me. 


§  164.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  ADVERBS. 

652.  —  Adverbs  are  joined  to  adjectives,  verbs,  and  other  ad- 
verbs, to  express  some  circumstance,  quality,  or  manner,  of  their 
signification. 

653.  —  Many  adverbs  in  Greek  have  the  force  of  prepositions 
in  Latin  and  English.     These  are  often  joined  with  substantives, 
as*will  appear  in  the  following  rules.     They  are  also  sometimes 
used  as  substantives  or  adjectives  ;  as,  ano  TOTE,  from  that  time  ; 
o  i%co  dv&Qwnog,  the  outward  man.    373-2d. 


•   654.  —  RULE   XLII.    Derivative   adverbs   com- 
monly govern  the  case  of  their  primitives  ;  as, 


in  a  manner  worthy  of  us. 
7tdvtwvy         most  of  all. 
rolg  akhoig,     in  a  manner  similar  to  the  rest. 
ft  dig  ex  vii&,  without  the.  ship. 


§165.  ADVERBS  AS  PREPOSITIONS. 

655.  —  Adverbs  having  the  force  of  prepositions  govern  the 
same  case  with  the  prepositions  which,  in  meaning,  they  resem- 
ble ;  thus,  bpov,  apa,  together,  having  the  force  of  GVV,  govern 
the  dative  ;  wexa,  on  account  of,  resembling  did,  governs  the 
genitive.  This  general  principle  authorizes  the  two  following 
rules  : 

656.—  RULE  XLIII.  Some  adverbs  of  time, 
place,  and  quantity,  likewise  of  number,  order,  and 
exception,  govern  the  genitive  ;  as, 

ov  pig  dpi  ;  where  am  I? 

to  this  day. 


657.  —  Obs.  1.  To  these  may  be  added  adverbs  of  cause,  com- 


268  ADVERBS  AS  PREPOSITIONS.  §  165. 

parison,  distinction,  concealment,  separation,  or  exclamation  ;  and 
also  nouns  used  adverbially,  as,  %dQiv,  dlwjv,  ivtomov,  &c.  ;  as, 
wv,  like  rivers. 


658.  —  The  adverbs  which  come  under  this  rule  are  the  follow- 
ing :  avsv,  arsQ,  di%a,  %WQI$,  without  ;  UVTMQV,  avvwQvg,  anav- 
VMQV,  against,  opposite  ;  ci%Q(,,  ps'xQ1'  ^°i  even  t°  >  ^£X<*>  & 

on  account  of;  iyyvg,  nlqGUW9  ciy%i,,  O.GGOV,  near  ;  wvbg, 
exroG&w,  without  ;  Ivzog,  saw,  stereo,  evroG&ev,  within  ; 
aaQextog,  except,  but  ;    pera<*v,  among  ;    OTTI'GCO,   oTiiG&ev,  be- 
hind ;  fl$6ff&&?j  before  ;  mQav,  laexswa,  beyond,  &c. 

659.  —  Exc.  1.  ay%i  and  ahg  sometimes  govern  the  dative. 

660.  —  Exc.  2.    nlfy,  except,  has  sometimes  the  nominative 
after  it;    as,  nkip  ol  rcov  naidwv  diddcxakoi,  EXCEPT   THE 
TEACHERS  of  the  boys. 

66  1  .  —  Note.  Adverbs  of  the  final  cause  are  frequently  omitted  ;  as, 
eygaya  tovdt,  I  wrote  for  this  reason,  sup. 


662.  —  065.  2.    Adverbs  of  time,  place,  &c.  are  frequently 
changed   by  the  poets  into  adjectives;  as,   oids  navrni^Qioi 
po^Tiy  ftzov  ikciGxovro,  they  propitiated  the  god  ioith'  song  THE 

WHOLE  DAY.    381. 

663.  —  Certain  adverbs  are  joined  sometimes  with  one  case, 
and  sometimes  with  another  ;  as  follows  : 

1st.  ctytpya,  ccfAfuyfyv,  tyyvg,  fyyv&ev,  aaQsyyvg,  Gvvsyyvg,  s^ijg, 
«<Jpfi$7£>  G%£d6v>  G%ed6&£v,  avTOG%8dov,  are  put  with  the  GEN- 
ITIVE Or  DATIVE. 

2d.    &,y%i9  ay%6&i,  Ixnodoov,  TttyGiov,  IrtiflQOG&ev,  oftener  with 

the  GENITIVE.  % 

3d.    dvdnahv,  epTtahv,  oftener  with  the  DATIVE. 

4th.  ftcrco,  jit£(jg)«,  TTaQex  or  trage^,  nsQi%,  with  the  GENITIVE  or 

ACCUSATIVE. 

5th.  devQO,  with  the  DATIVE  or  ACCUSATIVE. 
6th.  a%Qi,  &%(>ig,  [*£%Qt,  pfyQi?,  with  the  GENITIVE,  DATIVE,  or  AC- 
CUSATIVE. 


664. — KITLE  XLIV.   Adverbs  of  accompanying 
govern  the  dative  ;  as, 

ry  qiwQM9  at  day-break. 


§  166.  NEGATIVES.  269 

665.  —  RULE  XL  V.  Adverbs  of  swearing  govern 
the  accusative  ;  as, 

vr\  Ala.,  by  Jupiter  ;  pd  rods  Gxs'rtrQor,  by  this  sceptre. 


666.  —  Obs.  3.  In  leniences  of  this  kind,  fid  commonly  denies, 
unless  joined  with  vai  ;  and  vi\  affirms,  unless  joined  with  a  nega- 
tive. 

667.  —  Obs.  4.  ^  Adverbs  of  showing  are  put  with  the  nomina- 
tive ;  as,  Idov  o  dv&Qoonog,  behold  the  man  ;  i'ds  /}  IM 

xal  ol  ddskyol  pov,  behold  my  mother  and  my  brethren. 


§166.  NEGATIVES. 

668.— The  Greek  language  has  two  simple  negatives,  ov  and  [it], 
from  which  all  the  compound  negative  terms  are  formed,  and  to 
which,  in  their  use  and  manner  of  construction,  they  are  similar. 
Between  these  two  negatives  and  their  respective  compounds  there 
is  a  total  difference  of  use,  the  foundation  of  which  is  as  follows  : 
669. — 1.  Ov  is  the  direct  and  independent  negative,  which 
expresses  a  positive  denial  without  reference  to  any  thing  else  ; 
as,  ot'x  j&ftUn,  /  will  not ;  ovx  dya&ov  Ian,  it  is  not  good  ;  ov- 
dely  nctQtjv,  no  one  was  present.  A  direct  negation  of  this  kind 
can  never  be  expressed  by  ^  or  its  compounds. 

670. — 2.  Mi],  on  the  other  hand,  is  uniformly  a  dependent 
negative.  It  is  therefore  used  in  all  propositions  in  which  the 
negative  is  represented,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  something  dependent 
on  the  conception,  as  a  condition,  supposition,  &c. ;  and  hence 
it  is  used  in  the  manner  following : 

1st.  After  the  conditional  conjunctions  el,  lav,  7p>,  orav,  Ineiddv, 
scog,  civ,  and  those  which  intimate  an  end,  design,  motive,  as, 
wa,  c0£,  oftcog,  (afire ;  as,  el  [At]  OQ&G)£  JU^a>,  if  I  do  not 
speak  correctly  ;  drtedJjpTpe  Iva  pj  •  dwyxao-ftrj,  x.r.L,  he 
(Solon)  went  away  that  he  might  not  be  compelled,  &c. 
2d.  Without  any  such  particle,  p]  is  always  put  with  the  im- 
perative mood  in  all  the  tenses ;  with  the  subjunctive,  in  the 
aorists  used  imperatively  ;  and  with  the  optative,  when  it  ex- 
presses a  wish ;  as,  p/  ps  fidkhs,  or  [iq  fis  ^d^yg,  do  not 
strike  me  ;  p]  ywovto,  may  it  not  be. 

3d.   M/J  is  used  after  relatives,  and  with  participles  when  they 
express  a  condition  or  supposition ;  as,  tig  ds  dovvai 


270  DOUBLE  NEGATIVES.  §167. 


py  avrbg  $%£i;  who  can  give  a  thing  to  another, 
IF  HE  HAS  IT  NOT  himself?  a  ovx  avrog  £%£(,  would  mean, 
that  which  he  has  not  himself.  So  also,  6  p/  ffiffTevtov,  if  a 
person  does  not  believe.  But  6  ov  nusrsvwv,  is,  one  who 
does  not  believe. 

4th.  Mi]  is  used  with  infinitives  whether  they  are  dependent  upon 
another  verb,  or  used  with  the  article  as  a  verbal  noun  (714); 
as,  avdywj  rovro  p/  noiew,  it  is  necessary  not  to  do  this  ; 
TO  ju//  nottlv,  the  not  doing. 

5th.  With  verbs  which  signify  to  fear,  to  warn,  and  the  like,  p/ 
is  used,  like  ne  in  Latin,  where  a  positive  expression  is  used 
in  English  ;  as,  dedoixa)  pr]  ti  f&qrctt,  vereor  ne  quid  acci- 
dat,  /  am  afraid  that  something  may  happen.  Sometimes 
the  preceding  verb  is  understood  ;  as,  ^  rovro  cillcog  £%q 
(scil.  ds'doMo),  I  fear  lest  this  be  otherwise. 

So  also,  after  verbs  which  signify  to  forbid,  deny,  prevent, 
refrain,  disbelieve,  to  be  cautious,  and  the  like,  it  is  frequently 
put  with  the  infinitive,  where  the  negative  is  not  used  in 
English  ;  as,  anavdco  rovrov  ^  TTC&QIKVCU,  I  forbid  this  man 
to  enter. 

6th.  May  is  sometimes  merely  an  interrogative  particle  like  num 
in  Latin,  giving,  however,  greater  emphasis  to  the  question  ; 
as,  (iq  aveksiv  pe,  cry  -frfi'Aaff  ;  wilt  thou  Ml  me  ?  - 

671.—  3.  A  negative  placed  between  the  article  and  its  noun, 
converts  it  into  a  sort  of  compound  negative  term  ;  as,  q  ov  did- 
hvmg  i&v  ystyVQ&v,  the  not  destroying  of  the  bridges  ;  /}  py  B^L- 
TtsiQia,  the  inexperience. 

672.  —  Rem.  In  the  same  manner,  it  is  used  with  certain  verbs, 
not  as  a  negative,  but  to  reverse  their  meaning  ;  thus,  cpqiti,  I  say, 
ov  cptjfu,  I  deny,  contradict  ;  Scuoij  I  allow,  ovx  law,  I  forbid  ; 
vrti6%veo[i(u,  I  promise,  ov%  vJtumeofiai,  1  refuse  ;  thus,  ovx 
Icpaaav  rovro  ewai  does  not  signify,  they  did  not  say  that  this 
was,  but,  THEY  DENIED  that  this  was,  or,  they  said  this  was  not. 


§  167.  DOUBLE  NEGATIVES. 

673. — When  to  a  proposition  already  negative,  and  also  to 
verbs  which  signify  to  deny,  to  contradict,  to  hinder  or  oppose, 
and  the  like,  other  qualifications  of  a  general  nature  are  to  be 
attached  ;  such  as  ever,  any  body,  any  where,  <fec. ;  it  is  usual  to 


§  167,  DOUBLE  NEGATIVES.  271 

do  this  by  compounds  of  the  same  negative.     Hence  the  follow- 
ing rules  : 

674.  —  RULE  XL  VI.    Two  or  more  negatives, 
,  joined  to  the  same  verb,  strengthen  the  negation  ; 
as, 

rovro  ovdapov  ovdeig,.        no  one  any  where  did  this. 


675.  —  Obs.  1.  To  the  negation  of  the  whole,  is  joined,  in  the 
same  sentence,  the  negation  of  the  parts  ;  as,  ov  dvvatai  ovrs 
ovrs  Ttoieir,  he  can  neither  speak  nor  act. 


Note.  Consequently,  in  translating  such  propositions  into  English, 
only  one  negative  can  be  used.  . 

676.  —  RULE  XLVII.  Two  or  more  negatives 
joined  to  different  verbs,  destroy  tlje  negation, 
and  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  ;  as, 


ov  dw>  'due-d  'a  pr]  Aatarr,  we  cannot  but  speak. 
ovdslg  bang  ov  ^.dfferaiy  there  is  nobody  who  will  not  laugh,  i.  <>. 
"  every  body  will  laugh  ;"  «<m  being  understood  with 


677.  —  Obs.  2.  Indeed,  so  common  is  the  ellipsis  of  eart  in 
this  expression,  that  it  is  lost  sight  of,  and  the  antecedent  ovdsi'g, 
which  should  be  its  nominative,  is  often  attracted  into  the  case 
of  the  relative  which  follows  ;  as,  ovdevl  orco  ovx  UQEGXSI,  there 
is  nobody  whom  it  does  not  please,  for  ovdeig  oro?,  &c.  ;  ovdiva 
ovnvct,  ov  narixkavGBv,  he  caused  every  one  to  weep,  for  ovSelg 
i<5iiv  ovnva,  &c.  there  is  NO  ONE  whom  hejtm  NOT  CAUSE  to 
weep. 

678.  —  Obs.  3.  It  is  also  proper  to  observe  the  use  of  the  nega- 
tive in  such  sentences  as  the  following  :  xal  ov  ravra  p-v  ygdopei 
o  Qikmnos  toig  $  egyoig  ov  Ttoisi,  Philip  does  not  write  these 
things  and  not  perform  them  ;  i.  e.  THINK  NOT  that  Philip  writes 
these  things  and  does  not  execute  them  ;  where  the  first  ov  does 
not  affect  the  verb  yQciqisi,  but  the  two  propositions  together.     It 
denies  an  assertion  which  might  be  thus  expressed  :  yQciqiei.  IASV 
ov  noizl  ds,  he  writes  but  does  not  execute.     So  also  ov  dtj  tcov 
pew  %£tQOTe%VG3v  Itfri  ti  nsQag  vtjg  sgyaaiag,  rov  tf  dv&Qwawov 
fiiov  ovx  sari,  u  it  cannot  be  that  there  is  some  object  in  the  la- 
bours of  the  artist,  but  none  in  the  life  of  man" 

679.  —  Note.  In  phrases  of  this  kind,  the  two  propositions,  as  here, 
are  usually  distinguished  by  [A,iv  and  $i  ;  and  the  second  is  negative. 


272  PREPOSITIONS.  §  168. 

680. — Obs.  4.  Tn  some  phrases  ov  and  uw  are  united  ;  as,  ov 
pi]  and  pi]  ov.  Ov  \ni\  is  a  stronger  and  more  emphatic  negation 
than  ov,  and  is  used  in  the  same  way,  669.  Mi;  ov,  in  general, 
is  only  a  stronger  expression  of  f«y,  and  is  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner, subject,  however,  to  the  following  modifications  : 

1st.  In  dependent  propositions,  when  the  verb  of  the  principal 
proposition  is  either  accompanied  by  a  negation,  or  contains 
a  negative  idea  in  itself,  pi]  ov  destroy  each  other,  and  may 
generally  be  rendered  "that;"  as,  ovx  aQvov^iai  pi]  ov 
yevsG&ai,  I  do  not  deny  THAT  it  has  taken  place  ;  n^o^ai 
yuQ  ov  roGOvrov  ovSw  (£GTS  pi]  ov  xahwg  ftoLvziv,  for  I  am 
persuaded  that  there  will  nothing  happen  to  me  so  bad  but 
THAT  I  shall  die  nobly. 

2d.  M?;  ov,  after  verbs  signifying  to  fear,  to  warn,  &c.,  as  above, 
670-5th,  render  the  sentence  negative,  which,  with  ^  alone, 
would  be  positive  ;  as,  dzdowa  pi]  ov  n  ysvqrcu,  I  am  afraid 
lest  something  MAY  NOT  happen  ;  cpofiovpcu  \nr\  ov  xakbv  ??, 
vereor  ne  non  honestum  sit,  /  fear  THAT  this  may  NOT  be 
proper. 

3d.  In  independent  propositions  with  the  subjunctive  mood,  p/ 
joined  with  ov  makes  the  negative  expression  less  positive  ; 
as,  akka  ju/y  ov/c  y  didcwrbv  q  ag^ry,  but  virtue  may  PER- 
HAPS be  a  thing  not  to  be  taught.  The  sentence  may  be  ex- 
plained by  supplying  an  omitted  verb,  as  o^cc,  or  the  like, 
and  be  rendered  literally :  but  see  whether  virtue  may  not 
be,  &G. 


§168.  PREPOSITIONS. 

681. — Prepositions  are  used  to  express  the  relation  in  which 
one  thing  stands  to  another.  For  the  primary  and  various  de- 
rived meanings  of  prepositions  in  different  constructions,  see  §  124. 
The  influence  they  exert  over  the  words  with  which  they  are 
joined,  as  far  as  it  respects  their  case,  is  regulated  by  the  follow- 
ing rules : 

682.— KULE  XLVIII.  *Avri,  dno,  sx  or  3£,  and 
,  govern  the  genitive  only ;  as, 

avri  .o<]p#afytot5,         an  eye  for  an  eye. 


§  168.  PEEPOSITIONS.  273 

683. — RULE  XLIX.  *Ev  and  GVV  govern  the  da- 
tive. 


684.  —  RULE  L.  Els  (or  es)  an<l  «^«  govern  the 
accusative. 

Obs.  1.  jAva.)  among  the  poets,  also  governs  the  dative. 


685.  —  RULE  LI.  Aid,  Kara,  fisrcc,  VHSQ,  govern 
the  genitive  or  accusative. 

686.  —  Obs.  2.  M&td,  among  the  poets,  also  governs  the  da- 
tive of  a  plural  noun,  or  a  noun  of  multitude  ;  as,  pera 
avaacev.  _ 

687.  —  RULE  LII.  *dfi(pi,  ntgi,  fni,  naga, 

and  vnb,  govern  the  genitive,  dative,  or  accusa- 
tive. 

Note.  —  FOP  the  meaning  of  the  prepositions,  as  modified  hy  the  case 
with  which  they  are  joined,  see  §  124. 

688.  —  Obs.  3.    Prepositions  are  often  used  as  adverbs,  their 
case  being  understood.     This  is  the  case  especially  with  Iv  in  -the 

Janic  and  TtQog  in  the  Attic.  Hence,  in  the  Ionic  writers,  they 
are  often  put  twice,  once  adverbially  without  a  case,  and  again 
with  a  case  or  in  composition  with,  a  verb  ;  as,  iv  dz  xal  Iv  Mep- 
(jpt,  in  Memphis  also. 

689.  —  Obs.  4.    Prepositions  are  sometimes  separated  from 
their  case  ;  as,  Iv  ya,Q  GS  ty  wxrl  tavrri  dvaiQOpcu.     In  Attic, 
this  takes  place,  according  to  the  rule,  with  the  conjunctions 
ply,  ds,  yaQ,  ovv  ;  as,  iv  plv  yag  eiQjjvii  5  —  &  \**v  ° 

vag  ;  and  with  nqog  with  the  genitive  when  it  signifies  per. 

690.  —  Obs.  5.  Prepositions  are  often  put  after  their  case,  par- 
ticularly by  the  Ionic  and  Doric  writers,  and  the  Attic  poets  ;  as, 
ve  wv  ano  xal  xkujidcov.     In  the  Attic  prose  writers,  it  takes  place 
only  in  TIBQI  with  the  genitive.     When  so  placed,  the  accent  is 
always  thrown  back  to  the  first  syllable  ;  thus,  ano  TISQI,  &c. 

691.  —  Obs.  6.  When  a  preposition  should  stand  twice  with 
two  different  nouns,  it  is  often  put  only  once  by  the  poets,  and 
that  too  with  the  second  noun  ;  as,  ?}  dkbg  /}  ln\  y^g,  Horn,  by 
sea  or  land. 

692.  —  Obs.  *I.  A  preposition  is  frequently  understood. 


274  THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD.  §  it$,  170. 

§169.  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSIWDK 

693. — RULE  LIII.  A  preposition  in  composition* 
sometimes  governs  the  same  case  as  when  it  stands 
by  itself ;  as, 

l^tjkd's  lift  oimag,         he  went  out  from  the  house. 

694. —  Obs.  1.  This  is  done  when  the  preposition  can  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  verb,  and  joined  with  the  substantive,  without 
altering  the  sense. 

695. —  Obs  2.  In  Homer,  Herodotus,  and  other  old  writers, 
the  preposition  is  frequently  found  separated  by  one  or  more 
words  from  that  with  which  it  may  be  considered  in  composition  ; 
as,  TI^JUV  ano  "koiybv  a^ivvai  (II.  1.  67),  for  iftuv  anaiwvai  hoiyov  ; 
dab  pw  GZWVTOV  cohoag  (Herod.  3.  36),  for  cecovvbv  ^v  aTTcofa- 
aag.  Hence,  when  the  verb  is  to  be  repeated  several  times,  after 
the  first  time,  the  proposition  only  is  often  used ;  as,  ano^ei  nv~ 
hv,  ano  ds  aareQa.  Grammarians,  however,  consider  the  prepo- 
sition in  such  cases  as  used  adverbially,  and  not  properly  in  com- 
position. Instances  of  the  proper  tmesis  are  very  rare,- especially 
in  the  Attic  prose  writers. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VEEB. 


§170.  THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

696.: — The  indicative  mood  is  used,  in  Greek,  when  any  thing 
is  to  be  represented  as  actually  existing  or  happening,  and  as  a 
thing  independent  of  the  thought  and  ideas  of  the  speaker.  Hence 
it  is  often  used  where  the  subjunctive,  and  sometimes  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  would  be  used  in  Latin  ;  as, 

1.  It  is  used  after  negative  propositions  with  the  relative  ;  as, 
ovdeig  sail  ocrig  tovro  noiei,  there  is  no  one  who  DOES  this. 
Lat.  'nemo  est  qui  hoc  FACIAT.     Lat.  Gr.  636. 

2.  It  is  used  in  indirect  interrogations,  where  the  Latin  re- 
quires the  subjunctive ;  as,  oQars'ti  aoiovpev,  you  see  what 
we  are  DOING.     Lat.  vides  quid  FACIAMUS.     Lat.  Gr.  627. 

3.  It  is  used  in  quoting  the  language  of  another,  stating  what 
is  actual  and  fact,  after  ori,  cog,  &c.,  where  the  Latin  uses  the 


§  170.  THE   INDICATIVE   MOOD.  275 

accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  the.  subjunctive  with  quod  ;  as, 
tflyejji€*  orioifiolieftoi  stpevyov,  he  announced  that  the  enemy  were 
fleeing.  Lat.  nunciavit  hostes  fugere,  or  hoc  nunciavit,  quod  hos- 
tesfugerent. 

THE   INDICATIVE   IN   CONDITIONAL   PROPOSITIONS. 

697. — The  indicative,  in  Greek,  is  used  in  conditional  propo- 
sitions in  various  ways,  as  follows  : 

1.  When  the  thing  supposed  in  the  condition  is  regarded  as 
a  fact,  and  neither  contingent  nor  uncertain,  the  indicative  in  any 
tense  is  used  with  el  in  the  condition,  followed  by  the  indicative 
or  imperative,  and  sometimes  by  the  subjunctive  used  impera- 
tively (709),  without  av  in  the  conclusion  ;  as,  d  elal  fiafiol,  eiGt 
xal  &eol,  if  there  are  altars,  there  are  also  gods  ;  el  IfiQoviqGe, 
xal  ijGrQaifjev,  if  it  thundered  (as  it  did),  it  also  lightened  ;  el 
fioorftpet,  xal  aGTQaijjei,  if  it  shall  thunder,  it  will  also  lighten. 
This  accords  with  the  Latin  construction.     Lat.  Gr.  624-2. 

2.  When  the  thing  supposed  in  the  condition  is  not  a  fact,  or 
when  a  denial  of  it  is  implied,  the  indicative  in  the  past  tenses  is 
used  with  el  in  the  condition,  and  with  ay  in  the  conclusion ; 
and  here  there  are  three  cases  ;  viz., 

1st.  When  the  reference  is  to  present  time,  or  to  past  and  pres- 
ent time,  the  imperfect  tense  is  used  in  both  parte  ;  as,  ei  ^l 
efyev,  Idldov  av,  if  he  had  any  thing  (now),  he  would  give  it. 
Lat.  si  quid  haberet,  daret. 

2d.  When  the  reference  in  both  clauses  is  to  past  time,  the  aorist 
must  be  used  instead  of  the  imperfect  in  both,  or,  at  least, 
in  one  of  them  ;  as,  ei  n  ec%ov,  edwy  av,  if  I  had  had  any 
thing,  I  would  have  given  it.  Lat.  si  quid  habuissem,  dedis- 
sem ;  ovx  ay  aQO&eyev,  el  pq  inlGievGev  aty&evGeiv,  he 
would  not  have  foretold  it,  unless  he  had  believed  he  would 
speak  the  truth. 

3d.  When  the  condition  refers  to  past  time,  and  the  conclusion 
to  present,  the  indicative  aorist  with  el  is  used  in  the  former, 
and  the  imperfect  with  ay  in  the  latter ;  as,  el  fya&oy,  vyi- 
yywaxoy  ar,  if  I  had  learned  (then),  /  should  know  (now). 

698. —  Obs.  The  indicative  without  el  or  ay  is  sometimes  used 
in  suppositions,  where,  in  other  languages,  the  subjunctive  would 
be  put ;  as,  re&vqxa  vy  GTJ  {HfyarfH,  xal  p  aTtwheGe,  suppose 
that  J  had  BEEN  SLAIN  by  thy  daughter,  and  that  she  HAD  MADE 
AN  END  of  me. 


276         SUBJUNCTIVE  AND  OPTATIVE  MOODS.     §  171,  172. 


§171.  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

699.—  The  imperative  in  Greek  is  used  as  in  other  languages, 
in  addresses,  entreaties",  commands,  &c.  The  pronouns  (being 
the  nominative)  are  omitted,  except  where  emphasis  or  distinc- 
tion is  required.-  In  the  use  of  this  mood  the  following  peculi- 
arities of  construction  may  be  observed  ;  viz., 

1.  The  second  person  sometimes  stands  for  the  third  ;  as, 

a  qvkarrs  nag  tig,         but  let  each  one  watch. 
rig  fth,  let  some  neighbour  go. 


2.  As  in  English,  the  plural  is  sometimes  used  for  the  singu- 
lar ;  as,  iTQOGsk&srs,  co  nal  narQi,  come,  0  my  child,  to  thy  fa- 
ther.    Also,  sometimes  the  singular,  when  more  than  one  person 
is  mentioned  ;  as,  sini  poi,  co  2c6xQareg  rs  xal  fl7i7i6xQareg. 

3.  In  prohibitions  with  p/,  the   present  imperative  is  most 
commonly  used.     If  the  aorist  is  used,  p]  must  be  put  with  the 
subjunctive.      The  few  exceptions  to  this  rule  belong  to  Homeric 
usage. 

4.  The  imperative  after  olotf  on,  oltitf  '.  o,  owrfl1'  cog,  seems  to 
be  used  elliptically,  and  to  have  arisen  from  a  transposition  of 
the  imperative  ;  as,  ofatf   cog  7iotj]6ov  ;  knowest  thou  in  ivhat 
way  thou  must  act  ?  (i.  e.  act,  knowest  thou  in  what  way  ?)  OIG\? 
ovv  o  dQ&Gov  ;  knowest  thou  what  to  do  ?  (i.  e.  do,  knowest  thou 
what?) 

5.  Sometimes  the  imperative   is  used  for  the  future;  as,  n 
ovv  ;  XEIG&CO  vopog  ;  ivhat  then  ?  shall  a  law  exist  ?  i.  e.    What 
then?  (do  you  say,)  let  a  law  exist?     On  the  other  hand,  the 
future  is  still  more  frequently  used  for  the  imperative  ;  as,  y^co- 
ceai  J4tQKi8riv  ^yafAt'fivova   (for  yvco&i),  recollect   Agamemnon, 
Atreus1  son.     Especially  is  this  the  case  with  a  negative  inter- 
rogatively ;  as,  ovxovv  [i  Idasig  ;  will  you  not  leave  me  alone  ? 
i.  e.  leave  me  alone. 


§  172.  SUBJUNCTIVE  AND  OPTATIVE  MOODS. 

700. — The  subjunctive  and  optative  moods  represent  an  ac- 
tion, not  as  actually  existing,  but  rather  as  dependent  upon,  and 
connected  with,  the  ideas  and  feelings  of  the  speaker.  The  sub- 
junctive represents  this  dependence  as  present ;  the  optative  rep- 
resents it  zspast  (197-2).  Hence  the  following  general  rule  : 


§  172.        SUBJUNCTIVE   AND  OPTATIVE   MOODS.  277 

I.   The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  in  Dependent  Propositions.     . 

701. — RULE  LIV.  In  dependent  clauses,  the 
subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  connection  with  the 
primary  tenses ;  the  optative,  with  the  second- 
ary (199-3)  ;  as, 

TtaQSifu  ivu,  i'dco,          .       /  am  present  that  I  may  see. 
TtaQtjg  Iva  idoiiu,  I  was  present  tJiat  I  might  see. 

On  tliis  general  principle  the  whole  construction  of  these 
moods  depends,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  observa- 
tions : 

702. —  Obs.  1.  These  moods  are  used  after  conjunctions  whose 
use  is  to  introduce  a  subordinate  or  dependent  clause,  in  which 
actual  existence  is  not  definitely  expressed  ;  as,  wa,  ocpQa,  wiwg, 
cog ;  thus,  l&&eig  ocpQ3  avvbg  '1%  q  g  ycjoa? ;  do  you  wish  THAT 
you  yourself  MAY  HAV,E  a  reward  ?  pj  p  IQS&I&,  GacotSQog  cog 
xe  v&i]  aij  provoke  me  not,  THAT  YOU  MAY  RETURN  the  safer.  This 
sentence,  which  contains  the  direct  address  (oratio  directa)  of  Aga- 
memnon to  Chryses,  has  the  subjunctive  after  co£,  in  connection 
with  the  present  SQS&I&.  When  this  is  afterwards  related  as  a 
past  event,  in  the  style  of  the  indirect  address  (oratio  obliqua),  the 
subjunctive  is  changed  into  the  optative;  thus,  dmsvai  ins H eve 
xal  p/  fQS&i&w,  ira  Gag  oixade  soften,  HE  COMMANDED  him  to 
depart  and  not  provoke  him,  that  lie  MIGHT  RETURN  safe. 

703. — In  like  manner  when  a  person,  without  quoting  the  di- 
rect language  of  another,  relates  what  was  said  by  him,  not  as 
actual  and  fact,  but  as  a  supposition  or  the  opinion  of  that  per- 
son, as  the  reference  must  be  to  what  is  past,*  the  optative  is 
used  with  on  or  ag  prefixed ;  as,  "El,£%s  JUG/,  on  ?}  odbg  cptQOi 
sig  t]\v  Tzohv,  &c. ;  he  told  me,  that  the  road  WOULD  LEAD  me  into 
the  city,  &G.  See  also  696-3. 

When  on  has  been  already  expressed,  it  is  often  omitted  before 
succeeding  clauses  in  the  same  construction. 

Note.  "Otv,  that,  is  also  used,  in  Greek,  when  the  words  of  another 
are  quoted  without  change  in  direct  discourse.  .  It  is  then  equivalent 
to  quotation  marks  only,  and  is  to  be  omitted  in  translation ;  as,  a,7it- 
y.Qivaro,  ors  BaGihlav  ovx  av  df^aljuyv,  he  answered:  "  I  will  not  re- 
ceive the  kingdom;  "  I'dwc;  av  tiTroMv,  ori>'  3/2  JSw^xccrfs,  firj  &<xvpctfy  ra 
feyoiitvcL,  perhaps  they  (the  laws)  might  say,  "  0  Socrates,  wonder  not 
at  the  sayings  "  (lit.,  things  said). 

704. —  Obs.  2.  When  a,  past  event  is  related  in  the  present 
time  (198,  Obs.  1),  the  verb  in  the  dependent  clause  may  still  be 


278  SUBJUNCTIVE  AND   OPTATIVE   MOODS.        §172. 

in  the  optative  ;  and  in  like  manner,  after  the  historical  tenses, 
the  subjunctive  is  used  when  the  event,  though  past,  yet  continues 
in  its  effects  and  operation,  to,  and  through,  the  present  time. 
Thus,  in  the  address  of  Minerva  to  Diomede,  "I  removed  the 
mist  from  your  eyes  that  you  MAY  distinguish  (ocpQa  f&toWfig)  a 
deity  from  a  man  in  the  field  of  battle."  Here,  however,  there 
may  be  a  change  of  reference,  i.  e.  the  subjunctive  ywoacrx?^  may 
refer,  not  to  the  time  of  the  removal,  but  to  the  time  of  the  ad- 
dress, as  if  she  had  said,  "  I  removed  the  mist  from  your  eyes 
that  you  MAY  from  this  time  forward  distinguish"  &c.  Such 
changes  of  reference  are  not  uncommon  in  all  languages. 

705. —  Obs.  3.  It  was  noticed,  197,  Obs.  3,  that  the  future  in- 
dicative is  used  in  a  subjunctive  sense.  Accordingly  it  is  often 
found  in  a  dependent  clause,  especially  after  onoog,  in  the  same 
construction  as  the  subjunctive ;  as,  "  Cyrus  deliberates  (onag 
[if]7Tor8  sn  serai)  how  he  MAY  no  longer  be  subject  to  his  brother, 
but,  if  possible,  (fiaGikevGsi)  MAY  reign  in*  his  stead."  J£xe;mW 
— oTzwg  aGcpakearara  dm&f&v  (subj.),  KVLI  orrcog  ra  Imz/faia 
8»Of*€V  (fut.),  We  ought  to  consider  how  we  may  get-  away  most 
safely,  and  obtain  the  necessary  supplies. 

706. —  Obs.  4.  After  adverbs  of  time,  when  the  precise  point 
of  time  is  not  determined  but  left  indefinite,  the  subjunctive  and 
optative  are  used.  These  are  tnrpt  laeiddv,  orav,  onorav,  refer- 
ring indefinitely  to  the  present,  and  so  followed  by  the  subjunc- 
tive— last,  eVretch/,  ore,  ombre,  referring  indefinitely  to  the  past,  and 
followed  by  the  optative ;  as,  "  Menelaus  entertained  him  when 
(from  time  to  time)  he  came  from  Crete,"  oTtors  KQqrq&ev 
ixowo.  Here  OTTOTS  KQfafd'&r  MSTO  would  mean,  when  he  actu- 
ally came  from  'Crete.  The  primary  part  of  the  sentence,  then, 
may  be  considered  as  understood, — when  it  happened, — that  he 
came  from  Crete. 

707. —  Obs.  5.  When  the  relatives  og,  ocrig,  oiog,  onov,  &c. 
refer  to  definite  persons  or  things,  and  to  what  actually  took 
place,  they  are  followed  by  the  indicative  mood.  But  if  the  per- 
son or  thing  to  which  they\  refer  is  indefinite,  and  the  whole  pro- 
position affirms  of  past  time,  then  the  verb  is  in  the  optative 
without  av ;  as,  ovxiva  ^lv  fiaciktja  xi%8iy,  whatever  monarch  he 
found  j  advTctg  OTCO  IVTV%OIEV — XTSivovreg,  slaying  all  whomsoever 
they  might  meet.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  proposition  affirms 
something  of  present  or  future  time,  the  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive 
with  av ;  as,  iv  y  d'  civ  rwv  cpvkwv  rikuGioi  OOCTJ,  <fec.,  in  which- 
soever of  the  tribes  there  may  be  the  greatest  number,  &c. ; 


§  172.        SUBJUNCTIVE  AND  OPTATIVE  MOODS.  279 

onoi  av  tig  iippai,  follow  where  (it  is  possible  that)  any  one  may 
lead  the  way.  In  such  sentences  the  primary  part  may  be  under- 
stood, such  as  "  it  is  possible  tnat,"  "  it  happened  that,"  &c. 

IT.  Tlie  Subjunctive  and  Optative  in  Independent  Propositions. 

708. —  Obs.  6.  Both  the  subjunctive  and  optative  are  used 
without  being  preceded  by  another  verb,  and  so  apparently  in 
independent  clauses.     In  all  such  instances,  however,  there  is  an 
ellipsis  of  the  verb  on  which  they  depend. 
709.— I.  The  subjunctive  is  thus  used, 
1st.  To  command  in  the  first  person ;  as,  i'wpev,  let  us  go,  i.  e. 

it  is  necessary  that  we  go  ;  and  so-  of  others. 
2d.    In  forbidding,  with  p/  or  its  compounds  in  the  aorist,  not  in 

the  present ;  as,  ^  ouoGflg,  swear  not. 
3d.    In  deliberating  with  one's  self;  as,  nol  TQancouai,  whither 

shall  I  turn  ;  ttftwyw  ?/  Giy^^ev,  shall  we  speak  or  be  silent. 
710. — II.  The  optative  is  thus  used, 
1st.  To  express  a  wish  or  prayer ;  as,  tovro  [it]  ywoito,  0  that 

this  might  not  be.     In  this  case   side,  el,  cog,  TZCQ$  civ,  are 

often  used  with  the  optative. 

Rem.  A  wish  relating  to  what  is  past,  or  that  cannot  be  realized,  is 
expressed  by  the  indicative  of  the  historical  tenses,  with  *l'#f,  tiff  el 
ydQ,  o)c,  prefixed ;  as,  u&e  dwcnov  rtv,  would  that  it  were  possible. — Or, 
by  the  2  aorist  indicative  of  o<jpf/ylo>  (w^fAov,  -fc;,  -f,  200-8.)  -with  the 
infinitive;  as,  [ATJTIOT  wcpflov  Ttoitlv,  would  that  I  had  never  done  it  !  ft 
ya,Q  o)q>( A«  &avtlv,  0  that  he  had  died  ! 

2d.  In  connection  with  av,  to  express  doubt,  conjecture,  bare  pos- 
sibility ;  as,  nvlg  av  eiev  vopeTg,  they  were  perhaps  (or,  it  is 
probable  that  they  were)  shepherds  ;  and  in  volitions,  to  ex- 
press, not  a  fixed  resolution,  but  only  an  inclination  to  a 
thing  ;  as,  qdsag  av  •d'eacfai^v,  I  would  gladly  see  them. 

3d.  To  express  a  definite  assertion  with  politeness  or  modesty ; 
as,  jov%  ijxei  ovd*  av  i'j^oi  devQO,  he  has  not  come,  and 
WILL  NOT  COME  back  ;  i.  e.  I  rather  think  it  was  his  purpose 
that  he  would  not  come  back. 

4th.  Sometimes  it  is  used  for  the  imperative,  to  convey  a  com- 
mand or  request  in  milder  terms  ;  as,  %a>Qoig  av  eiGG),  you 
may  go  in,  i.  e.  go  in. 

5th.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  the  indicative,  to  give  an  air  of  in- 
determinateness  to  the  circumstances  of  an  action  which  is 
determinate  in  itself;  as,  T&V  veav  ag  xavadvcsiav,  the  ships 
which  they  may  (or  might)  have  sunk  ;  i.  e.  u)hich  they  have 
sunk. 


280  CONSTRUCTION   OF  THE   INFINITIVE.          §  172. 

6th.  It  is  also  used  in  a  potential  sense,  to  denote  power  or  vo- 
lition ;  as,  ovx  av  8f  pei'veiag  avrov  ;  could  you  not  with- 
stand kirn  ?  &&&tjGMe9  av  ;  would  he  be  willing  ? 


ILL  The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  in  Conditional  Propositions. 

711.  —  Obs.  7.  The  use  of  the  indicative  in  conditional  propo- 
sitions has  been  noticed,  697.     The  subjunctive  and  optative  are 
also  used  in  conditional  propositions,  as  follows  : 

1st.  Uncertainty  in  the  -condition,  with  an  actual  result,  is  ex- 

pressed by  lav  with  the  subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and 

r     the  indicative  future  or  imperative  in  the  conclusion  ;  as, 

lav  11  e%G)[iev  dcoGopev,  if  we  HAVE  any  thing  we  will  give 

it  ;  lav  n  «'/#£,  dog,  if  you  HAVE  any  thing,  give  it. 

2d.  A  mere  hypothetical  supposition  with  a  determinate  result, 
puts  the  condition  in  the  optative  with  el,  and  the  result  in 
the  indicative  ;  as,  ovg  tdu  rijg  vvy,rb  g  TTaQayevs'c&ai  Ttav- 
GTQana,  EL  n  a^a  p/  TtQO^coQOi^  roig  eG&L&v&OGi,  who 
were  to  come  in  the  night  with  the  whole  army,  if  success 
SHOULD  not  ATTEND  those  who  had  entered.  On  the  contra- 
ry, an  actual  case  supposed  in  the  condition  with  a  hypo- 
thetical result,  would  require  the  first  in  the  indicative  with 
si,  and  the  last  in  the  optative  ;  as,  el  yaQ  (.tyds  ravra  oida, 
xal  rwv  avd^anodcov  cpavhorsQog  av  e'iqv,  if  I  did  not  know 
these  things,  I  SHOULD  BE  more  worthless  than  the  slaves. 

3d.  When  the  case  is  altogether  hypothetical,  the  condition  is 
expressed  by  the  optative  with  si,  and  the  result  by  the  op- 
tative with  av  ;  as,  el  Tig  ram  a  TtQarroi,  ^ya  \L  av 
cocpehqc>si8,  if  any  one  SHOULD  DO  this  he  WOULD  GREATLY 
ASSIST  me. 

Sometimes  tfce  subjunctive  with  lav  or  civ,  instead  of  the 
optative,  is  put  in  the  condition. 

712.  —  Obs.  8.  All  conditional  propositions  in  Greek  may  be 
turned  into  the  infinitive  or  participle  with  av  ;  as,  oiovrai  dva- 
(Ad%eo'&ai  av  cv^d^ovg  TtQoghdfiovreg,  "  they  think  they  might 
retrieve  their  fortune  in  war  if  they  should  obtain  allies." 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

713. — The  infinitive  mood  expresses  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
in  a  general  and  unlimited  manner,  without  the  distinctions  of 
number  or  person,  197-4.  In  construction  it  may  be  considered 


§  173,  174.     INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  SUBJECT.  281 

under  the  four  following  divisions :  viz.,  as  a  verbal  noun  ; — with- 
out a  subject,  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or 
adjective  ; — with  a  subject ; — absolutely  after  certain  particles. 


§  173.  I.  THE  INFINITIVE  AS  A  VERBAL  NOUN. 

714. — The  infinitive,  with  the  neuter  article  prefixed,  403-14, 
is  used  as  a  verbal  noun,  in  all  the  cases  except  the  vocative ; 
and,  as  such,  is  subject  to  the  same  rules  of  construction  as  the 
noun,  being  used  in  the  nominative  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  and 
gove'rned,  in  the  oblique  cases,  by  verbs  or  prepositions. 

715. —  Obs.  1.  When  the  infinitive,  with,  or  without,  a  clause, 
is  used  as  the  nominative  to  a  verb,  or  the  accusative  governe4 
by  it,  it  is  frequently  without  the  article ;  very  rarely  so  after  a 
preposition  ;  as,  naGiv  IHUV  xa.T&a,v£iv  ocpeikerat,  dying  is  due  to 
all  of  us. 

716. —  Obs.  2.  Not  only  the  simple  infinitive,  but  the  infini- 
tive with  the  whole  clause  to  which  it  belongs,  may  often  be  re- 
garded as  a  substantive,  and  stand  in  almost  every  variety  of 
construction  in  which  a  substantive  can  be  placed  ;  as,  Nom.  TO 
Tovg  dv&Qconovg  apaQzdvew  ovdw  ftavfiatiTov  (ttm),  that  men 
sfiould  err  is  nothing  wonderful ;  Gen.  vntQ  TOV  ftofdfrto  dno- 
•frvijcxetv,  that  no  one  might  perish  ;  Dat.  iva  dmo~TG)6i  TGJ  epe 
TSTiptjG&cu  V7to  daipovcnr,  that  they  may  disbelieve  my  having 
been  honoured  by  the  gods  ;  Ace.  exQiva  TO  p;  Tidhv  eh&sw,  I 
determined  not  to  come  again. 

717. —  Obs.  3.  With  the  article  alone,  the  infinitive  is  gener- 
ally equivalent  to  the  Latin  gerund  ;  as,  wsua  TOV  fayew,  causa 
dicendi  ;  iv  TC$  1#y£Wt  dicendo  ;  TtQog  TO  kfyi-iv,  ad  dicendum. 

718. —  Obs.  4.  Without  the  article,  it  has  often  the  force  of 
the  Latin  supine  ;  as,  fo&e  fyTijaai,  venit  qucesitum  ;  qdv  dxov  - 
£M>,  Suave  auditu  ;  ai'<j%iGTO£  ocp&rjvai,  turpissimus  visu. 


§  174.  H.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  A  SUBJECT. 

719. — RULE  LV.  One  verb,  being  the  subject 
of  another,  is  put  in  .the  infinitive  ;  as, 

cpevysw  avroig  dcyaheGTeQov  IGTIV,    to  fly  is  safer  for  them. 


282  INFINITIVE   WITHOUT  SUBJECT.  §  174. 

720.  —  RULE  LVI.   One  verb  governs  another 
as  its  object,,  in  the  infinitive  ;  as, 

tjQ^aTo  fa'yew,         he  began  to  say. 
Hem.  Both  these  rules  apply  to  the  infinitive  with  a  subject,  §  175. 

721.  —  EULE  LVII.  •  The  infinitive  mood  is  gov- 
erned by  adjectives  denoting  fitness,  ability,  capa- 
city, and  the  contrary  ;  as,  . 

dswbg  Kfyew,  powerful  in  speaking. 

a^iog  ftavpaGai,  worthy  to  be  admired. 


Note.  It  is  also  used  after  substantives  ;    as,   e£ovo~iav 
power  to  become. 

722.  —  Obs.  1.    The  infinitive  under  these  rules  is  in  the  same 
clause  with,  and  expresses  the  cause,  end,  or  object,  of  the  action, 
state,  or  quality  expressed  by,  the  verb  or  adjective  that  governs 
it.     The  verbs  that  govern  the  infinitive  directly  in  this  way  are 
such  as  denote  desire,  ability,  intention,  endeavour,  and  the  like  ; 
as,  l-O&si  YQayew,  he  wishes  to  write  ;  dsofiai  aov  ek&ew,  I  beg 
of  you  to  come. 

723.  —  Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  placed  after  verbs, 
to  express  the  design  or  consequence  of  that  which  they  affirm.' 
Thus  used  it  is  governed,  not  by  the  verb,  but  by  some  such  word 
as  cScrrE  understood  ;  as,  fyebv  ode  ndvia  na()£6%ew,  i.  e. 
ndvra  rtaQS6%eiv,  lam  here  (so  as)  to  furnish  all  things  ; 
(cSoTfi)  pav&dvew,  we  have  come  (in  order)  to  learn. 

724.  —  Obs.  3.  After  a  verb  or  adjective,  a  "verb  denoting  an 
incidental  object  not  directly  in  view,  is  put  in  the  infinitive 
with  owTTfi  ;  as,  (pdonporarog  %v  were  navra  vTZo^lvai,  he  was 
very  ambitious,  so  as  to  endure  all  things,  &c.     This  construction 
takes  place  especially  after  such  words  as  roGovtos,  toiovrog,  ov- 
rco£,  and  the  like. 

725.  —  Obs.  4.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  put  after  verbs  or 
adjectives  which  indicate  some  state  or  quality,  in  order  to  ex- 
press the  respect  in  which  that  state  or  quality  obtains,  and  would 
be  expressed  in  Latin  by  the  supine,  or  gerund  in  do,  and  in  En- 
glish, by  the  substantive  ;  as, 

id  eiv  lyaweTO,  as  it  appeared  TO  THE  SIGHT. 

dvtftoiciv  bpQioi,     .    like  the  winds  IN  RUNNING. 
ov8s  rtQovcpaweT  idtG&aij   nor  did  he  appear  TO  THE  SIGHT. 


§  175.  INFINITIVE  WITH  SUBJECT.  283 

726. —  Obs.  5.    The  infinitive  active  is  used  often  in -Greek  in 
the  sense  of  the  latter  supine,  or  infinitive  passive  in  Latin ;  as, 

Qciow  cpvkaGGeiv,  a,  man  is  more  easy  to  be  guarded  against, 
oiew,  things  easy  to  be  done.     + 


§175.  III.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITH  A  SUBJECT. 

727. — 1.  A  subordinate  or  dependent  clause  containing  a  verb 
and  its  subject,  is  connected  with  the  leading  or  primary  clause,  in 
two  ways.  FIRST,  by  a  conjunctive  particle,  such  as  on,  cog,  and 
the  like  ;  as,  TfyovGi  on  6  sraiQog  re&vqxe,  they  say  that  our  com- 
panion is  dead.  Here  the  verb  is  finite,  and  its  subject  in  the  nom- 
inative. SECOND,  without  a  conjunction  ;  as,  kfyovGi  rov  sraiQov 
TS&vdvcu,  they  say  that  our  companion  is  dead.  In  this  case,  the 
verb  is  in  the  infinitive,  and  its  subject,  usually  in  the  accusative. 

728. — 2.  Sometimes  both  modes  of  expression  are  united  in 
the  same  sentence  ;  as,  eo~n  'koyog  cog  &£0%y$  sxopi^sro  1$ 
tipjieirp'  akcoovra  ds  [uv  av^^ov  £TQV \novir\v  vrtokafislv. 
Sometimes  a  sentence  begins  with  the  one  form  and  ends  with 
the  other ;  as,  hfyovGi  d'  fjftag,  dxwdvvov  fiiov  ^coftsv,  they  say 
that  we  live  a  life  free  from  danger  ;  as  if  it  had  been  intended 
to  say,  kfyovGi  tf  qpag  dxivdvvov  fiiov  £yv  ;  735. 

The  construction  of-  the  subordinate  clause  connected  by  the 
first  method  mentioned  above,  is  subject  to  the  rules  §§  138, 139 ; 
connected  by  the  second,  it  comes  under  the  rules  that  follow  : 


Y29. — KULE  LVIII.  The  infinitive  mood  in  a 
dependent  clause,  lias  its  subject  in  the  accusative  ; 
as, 

vovg  fteovg  ndvra  eldwat  ekeyev,  he  said  that  the  gods  knew  all 
things. 

730. — Exc.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive 
is  the  same  with  the  subject  of  the  preceding  verb, 
it  is  put  by  attraction  in  the  same  case ;  as, 

sqjq  elvai  GTQarrjyog,        he  said  that  he  was  a  general. 

731. — 3.   In  this  construction,  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is 

^ generally  omitted,  except  when  emphasis  is  required  ;  as,  sqnj 

avrbg  elvai  GtQarrj'ybg,  ovx  Ixewovg,  he  said  that  HE  was  a  gene- 


284:  INFINITIVE  WITH  SUBJECT.  §175. 

ral,  that  THEY  were  not  generals.  This  construction  has  been 
frequently  imitated  in  Latin  ;  thus,  Sensit  medios  DELAPSUS  in 
hostes.  VIRG.  UXOR  invicti  Jovis  esse  nescis.  HOR. 

732.  —  Obs.  1.   In  a  few  instances,  constructions  vary  both 
from  the  rule  and  the  exception.     Occasionally,  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  is  in  the  nominative,  when  it  signifies  a  different 
thing  from  the  subject  of  the  preceding  verb,  and  in  the  accusa- 
tive, when  it  signifies  the  same. 

733.  —  Obs.  2.  Jf  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  be  the  same  with 
the  object  of  the  preceding  verb,  it  may  either  be  in  the  accusa- 
tive according  to  the  rule,  or  stand  before  the  infinitive,  in  the 
case  governed  by  the  preceding  verb  •  thus, 

xskevco  <5oi  rovro  TZOISW,  or 
' 


T  -,  -,    ,,  . 

~  >•  /  command  you  to  do  this. 

era  rovro 


734.  —  In  either  case  there  is  an  ellipsis  ;  —  in  the  first  form,  of 
(T£,  the  immediate  subject  of.  the  infinitive  ;  and  in  the  second,  of 
601,  the  remote  object  of  the  preceding  verb.     Both  these  modes 
of  construction  are  common,  and  sometimes  they  are  intermixed 
in  the  same  sentence  ;  thus,  Lysias,  dsopai  vp&v  ia  dixaia  ipq- 
(pfoacr&cu,  Iv&v  pov  ps'vovg  on,  x.r.L,  I  beg  OF  YOU  to  deter- 
mine, justly  CONSIDERING  that,  &c.     Here  v\i  wv  stands  before 
the  infinitive  governed  in  the  genitive  by  dsopcu,  and  yet  ev&v- 
povpwovg  follows  in  the  accusative,  evidently  agreeing  with  vpag 
the  subject  of  the  infinitive  understood.     With  equal  propriety,  it 
might  have  been  put  in  the  genitive. 

735.  —  Hem.  Constructions  of  this  kind,  in  which  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence does  not  grammatically  correspond  to  the  beginning,  are  called 
anacolutha.     For  other  examples  of  this,  see  535  and  728.     The  most 
common  form  of  anacoluthon  appears  to  be,  when  the  speaker  commen- 
ces a  period  in  the  manner  required  by  the  preceding  discourse,  but 
afterwards,  especially  after  a  parenthetic  clause,  passes  over  into  ano- 
ther construction.      This  method  of  construction,  however,  is  never 
adopted  by  Greek  writers  unless  something  is  thereby  gained  in  con- 
ciseness, perspicuity,  smoothness,  or  emphasis. 

736.  —  Obs.  3.  When  used  in  the  passive  voice,  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  is  changed  into  the  subject  of  the  preceding  verb, 
or  it  remains  unchanged  in  the  accusative,  the  passive  verb  being 
used  impersonally  ;  as, 


/      a 
7 

Cyrus  is  said  to  have  been  )  '-,  * 

It  is  said  that  Cyrm  was  \  the  son  °/ 


§176.  INFINITIVE   ABSOLUTE,  285 


737.  —  Obs.  4.  The  same  observation  is  true  of  the  verb 
thus,  doxsl  avTog  elvcu,  he  seems  to  be  /  or  doxsi  OLVTOV  sivai,  it 
seems  that  he  is.     The  following  sentence  unites  the  two  :  xal 
pji>   ifyyekTai  ys,   //   pd%i]   i6%vQU>  yvyvvwai  xai   Ttokhovg 
Te&vdvai,  and  indeed  IT  WAS  SAID  THAT  THE  BATTLE  was  obsti- 
nate, and  THAT  MANY  died.     In  like  manner,  the  adjectives  dixcu- 
og,  dtjlog,  yavegog,  &c.,  with  the  verb  dpi,  are  used  for  the  neuter 
gender  with  sail,  as  impersonals  ;  thus,  di'xcuog  dpi,  for  dixcuov 
IGTI,  &c.,  it  is  just  that  I,  &c.  ;  dfaog  IGTW,  for  dJ^kov  IGTW  av- 

•  tov  —  ,  it  is  manifest  that  he  —  .    755. 

738.  —  Obs.  5.  The  case  after  the  infinitive  of  a  copulative  verb 
(437),  must  be  the  same  with  the  case  before  it,  if  the  word  re- 
fers to  the  same  thing  (438)  ;  as,  Nom:  ^yp^  (ai)Tog)  slvai  aTQarq- 
yog,  he  said  that  he  was  a  general  ;  Gen.  xareyvcoxorcov  rfirj  pq- 
xk'n  XQSIGGOVCOV  slvaiy  having  learned  that  THEY  are  no  longer 
SUPERIOR;  Dat.  Icp   ^[nlv  l$rl  TO  iaiEixsai  kl  v  a  i,  it  depends 
upon  OURSELVES  TO  BE  REASONABLE.    And  this  observation  holds 
good  whether  the  word  before  the  infinitive  be  its  proper  subject,- 
or  (that  being  omitted,  731),  the  subject  or  the  object  of  the  pre- 
ceding verb. 

739.  —  Obs.  6.  Whatever  case  is  required  before  the  infinitive 
by  the  preceding  rules,  it  continues  the  same  though  preceded 
by  ca£  or  codzs,  or  a  preposition,  because  the  preposition  affects 
not  the  subject  of  the  infinitive,  but  belongs  to  the  infinitive  it^ 
self,  or  to  the  whole  clause  ;  thus,  ovdslg  rqhxovrog  &TTOO  TtaQ 
vyiiv  ware  rovg  vopovg  naQafiag  jurdovrcu  dtxtjv,  let  NO  ONE 
be  so  great  among  you,  that,  BREAKING  the  laws,  HE  can  go  unpun- 
ished ;  r^aQTctvov  dia  rb  p]]  cocpol  8ivai,    they   erred   BE- 

CAUSE THEY  WERE  NOT  WISE. 


§176.  IV.  THE  INFINITIVE  ABSOLUTE. 

740. — RULE  LIX.  The  infinitive  is  often  put 
absolutely  with  the  particles  rig,  ovars,  nqiv,  a%Qi, 
/ueXQi,  &c.,  before  it ;  as, 

<ng  idew  av&QO)7tov,  when  the  man  saw. 

nolv  anoftdvEiv  TO  ttcuftiov,     before  the  child  died. 

(og  [uxQov  [teydkcp  eixdacu,      to  compare  small  with  great. 

741. —  Obs.  1.  '&£,  with  the  infinitive,  is  frequently  used  to 
limit  a  proposition  in  the  sense  of  "as far  as ;"  thus,  cag  i^  ev 


286  THE  PARTICIPLE.  §  177. 


O,  as  far  as  1  recollect  distinctly  ;  co»£  ye  [wi  doxew,  as 
it  seems  to  me.  But  wg  is  frequently  omitted  ;  hence  such  ex- 
pressions as,  ov  nokl.^  hoyq*  sinew,  in  few  words  ;  HMQOV  dew, 
little  is  wanting,  almost  ;  Tiokhov  dew,  much  is  wanting. 

742.  —  Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  imperative 
mood,  OQa,  fikeTre,  Gxonel,  &c.  being  understood;  as,  %aiqeiv 
per  a  XCUQOVTCOV,  ukaieiv  fiera  xlaiovrav,  REJOICE  with  them 
that  do  rejoice,  and  WEEP  with  them  that  weep.     Sometimes,  also, 
for  the  optative,  dog,  rte'Aoo,  or  ev%o[iai,  being  understood  ;  as, 
co  Zev  IxyeveGftai  IJLOI  JH&rjvaiovs  riGaadai,  0  Jupiter,  MAY* 
IT  BE  GRANTED  to  me  to  punish  the  Athenians  :  —  sometimes  ex- 
pressed ;  as,  oo  Zev,  dog  pe  riGaG&ai  [AOQOV  aargog. 

743.  —  Obs.  3.  The  infinitive  eivai  is  sometimes  absolute  and 
redundant,  both  with  and  without  the  article  ;  viz., 

1st.*  After  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  prepositions  ;  thus,  exwv  ewai 
for  £cxco2>,  willing  ;  as,  exwv  av  ewou  rovro  ftou'jcaifu,  I 
would  willingly  do  this.  So  the  phrases,  ro  Gv\invLv  eivai, 
generally  ;  as  y  ewcu,  with  respect  to  you  •  rb  pev  TtjpeQov 
eivai,  to-day  at  least  ;  Kara  rovro  elvai,  with  respect  to  this  ; 
rb  vvv  elvai,  now  ;  rb  in  exewoig  elvat,  as  far  as  depends 
on  them. 

2d.  After  verbs  of  calling,  choosing,  making,  &c.  ;  as,  ffogwr^, 
ovopd^ovGi  ye  rbv  avdQa  elvai,  they  call  the  man  a  philoso- 
pher ;  ol  dti  Gv^a^ov  piv  ellovro  elvai,  they  chose  him  as 
an  ally  (598). 


§177.  THE  PARTICIPLE,  201. 

744. — -RuLE  LX.  Participles,  like  adjectives, 
agree  with  their  substantives  in  gender,  number, 
and  case,  372. 

745. — RULE  LXI.  Participles  govern  the  case 
of  their  own  verbs  ;  as, 

ol  nokiiniQi  rb  koyiov  eldoreg,    the  enemies  knowing  the  oracle, 
rovrow  epov  deopevov,  I  being  in  want  of  these  things. 

746. — The  Greek  language,  having  a  participle  in  every  tense 
of  every  voice,  uses  it  much  more  extensively  than  the  Latin 


§177.  THE   PAKTICIPLE.  287 

The  principal  purposes  for  which  it  is  employed  are  the  follow- 
ing : 

747. — I.  A  participle  is  joined  with  another   verb  agreeing 
with  its  subject,  for  the  following  purposes ;  viz., 

1st.  Simply  to  connect  an  accompanying  with  the  main  action 
in  the.  same  subject.  Thus  used,  the  participle  and  verb 
are  to  be  rendered  as  two  verbs  with  a  conjunction;  as, 
7taQ&&G)v  rig  d£i%a,TO),  let  any  one  come  forward  and  shew. 
-  2d.  To  combine  the  accompanying  with  the  main  action  as  the 
cause,  manner,  or  means  of  accomplishing  it ;  in  which  use 
it  is  equivalent  to  the  ablative  gerund  in  Latin,  as  in  the 
following  examples. 

CAUSE;  as,  ri  7toi?j6ag  xarsyva&r]  fidvarov ;  FOR  HAVING 
DONE  what  (quid  faciendo)  ivas  he  condemned  to  die  ? 

MEANS;  as,  eveQysrav  avrovg  expttdftip,  I  gained  them  BY 
KINDNESS  (bene  faciendo) ;  kqi£6p,8voi  ^WGW,  they  live  BY 
PLUNDER  (populando). 

MANNER;  as,  ysvycnv  sxcpevyei,  he  escapes  BY  FLIGHT  (fugien- 
do);  Toh[j,qGag  e!gfo&e,  he  went  in  BOLDLY  (audendo). 
This  construction  is  found  also  in  Latin  writers ;  thus,  Hoc 
faciens  vivam  melius,  HOR.  by  doing  this  I  shall  live  bet- 
ter ;  as  if,  hoc  faciendo,  &c. 

Note.  The  participle  thus  used  agrees  with  the  agent  in  any  case ; 
e.  g.  in  the  dative  ;  as,  a,  t o  iq  a, v & Q  o)  TC o  i q  'tdoixav  ol  &ioi  /iia&ovff  & 
foaKgivfw,  which  the  gods  have  put  it  in  the  power  of  MEN  to  find  out  by  . 
STUDY;  the  accusative;  as,  a  tswrw  a^^&^ijaavtaq  1}  ^fTQ?jffavraq  rj 
arfoavtaq  ddtvat,,  which  we  may  know  by  counting,  by  measuring,  or  by 
weighing. 

3d.  It  is  used,  to  limit  a  general  expression,  by  intimating  the 
action  in  respect  of  which  the  assertion  is  made ;  as,  oSw^iTs 
7toki\iQv  aQ%ovTEg,  ye  do  wrong  IN  BEGINNING  the  war. 

748.— Obs.  1.  In  this  way,  the  participle  is  used  with  verbs 
that  signify  any  emotion  of  the  mind,  to  show  the  cause  of  the 
emotion;  as,  qdopai  \niv  6  sis  id  car,  lam  rejoiced  at  SEEING 
YOU;  ovdsTZors  GOI  iteTapeh'jGei  sv  non'iGavvi,  you  will  never 
repent  OF  HAVING  DONE  A  KINDNESS. 

749. — II.  The  participle  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  further  de- 
scribing a  person  or  thing  mentioned  in  a  sentence,  and  may  be 
rendered  by  the  relative  and  the  verb  ;  or  for  connecting  with  a 
statementj  some  relation  of  time,  cause,  or  condition,  expressed  in 
English  by  such  words  as  when,  ivhile,  after  that ; — because, 
since,  as; — if,  although,  <fec. ; — the  relation  intended,  and  of 


288  THE  PARTICIPLE.  §177. 

course  the  proper  rendering  of  the  participle,  will  generally  have 
to  be  ascertained  from  the  nature  of  the  sentence  itself,  or  from 
the  connection  in  which  it  stands  ;  thus,  IneGxeTzrofjWjv  TOV  sraT- 
QOV  voaovvta,  may  signify,  according  to  the  context,  I  visited 
my  comrade  WHO  WAS  SICK  ;  or  WHEN,  or  BECAUSE,  he  was  sick  ; 
dsvdQa  per  r^^^Kvta  ra^toog  tyvsrai,  trees,  THOUGH  LOPPED 

(WHICH  HAVE  BEEN  LOPPED,  -  AFTER  THEY  HAVE  BEEN  LOPPED,  - 

WHEN  LOPPED,  as  to  their  branches),  quickly  grow  again. 

750.  —  Obs.  2.  When  the  article  precedes  the  participle  refer-, 
ring  to  a  word  already  expressed  or  easy  to  be  supplied,  the  two 
may  be  rendered  by  the  relative  and  the  indicative;  as,  6 
g,  he  that  cometh,  402-8. 


751.  —  Note.  The  participle,  with  the  article  before  it,  is  frequently 
equivalent  to  a  noun  designating  the  doer  of  the  action  expressed  by 
the  verb;  as,  ol  yQayjotfitvoi>  2o)y.Qdr^v,  the  accusers  of  Socrates.     There 
is,  however,  this  difference  ;  the  participle  expresses  the  doer  in  a  state 
of  action,  the  substantive  does  not  ;  thus,  6  dovkoq  is  a  man  in  the  con- 
dition of  a  slave  ;  6  dovfavwv  is  one,  at  the  time  referred  to,  performing 
the  part  of  a  slave. 

The  Participle  as  the  Infinitive. 

752.  —  III.  The  participle,  in  Greek,  is  often  used  as  the  in- 
finitive, and  has  for  its  subject,  according  to  the  sense,  either  the 
subject  or  the  object  of  the  preceding  verb,  with  which  it  always 
agrees  in  gender,  number,  and  case. 

753.  —  In  the  construction  of  the  participle  with  its  subject, 
there  occur  the  following  varieties  ;  viz., 

1st.  The  participle  takes  as  its  subject,  the  subject  of  the  pre- 
ceding verb,  and  agrees  with  it  in  the  nominative  or  accusa- 
tive ;  as,  NOMINATIVE,  ov  aavGopou  yQcupcov,  I  will  not  cease 
to  write  ;  oida  ^v^rog  MV,  I  know  that  I  am  a  mortal. 
ACCUSATIVE,  as  hfyovGiv  ambv  [A8[AM]G&ai  rtoirficwra,  they 
say  that  he  remembers  having  done  it,  "or,  that  he  did  it. 

2d.  The  participle  agrees  with  the  immediate  object  of  the  pre- 
ceding verb  as  its  subject,  in  the  accusative  ;  as,  aacp&g  xa- 
tsfjia'&ov  cpaQpaxa  avrbv  vytiv  fyftsavTa,  I  plainly  perceived 
that  he  had  infused  poison  for  you. 

3d.  The  participle  agrees  with  the  remote  object  of  the  verb  as 
its  subject,  in  the  genitive  or  dative.  GENITIVE,  as,  IJG&O- 
fitjv  avTwr  olofjievcnv  elvcu  Gocpwrdrow,  I  perceived  that  they 
fancied  themselves  to  be  very  wise  ;  DATIVE,  \irfimoit  [tete- 
petyGb  fioi  Gi.p'pavn,  I  never  repented  of  having  been  silent, 
or,  that  I  was  silent. 


§  177.  THE   PAKTICIPLE.  289 

4th.  When  the  verb  is  followed  by  a  reflexive  pronoun,  the  par- 
ticiple may  agree  either  with  the  pronoun  or  the  nominative 
to  the  verb ;  as,  Gvvoida  l^avrm  dpaQVavcov  or  apaQrdvovn, 
I  am  conscious  that  I  am  doing  wrong  •  eavrbv  ovdug  opo- 
koysi  xaxovQyog  cov,  or,  xaxovQyQv  ovra,  nobody  confesses 
that  he  himself  is  wicked. 

754. —  Obs.  3.  The  verbs  after  which  the  participle  is  thus 
used,  are  1st.  Verbs  of  sense ;  as,  to  see,  hear,  &c.  2.  Verbs  de- 
noting any  act  or  feeling  of  the  mind ;  xas,  to  know,  perceive,  dis- 
cern, consider,  observe,  experience,  shew,  recollect.  3.  Verbs  sig- 
nifying to  overlook,  to  permit,  to  happen,  to  persevere,  bear,  en- 
dure, to  be  pleased  or  contented  with,  to  cease,  and  to  cause  to 
cease. 

755. — It  is  used,  also,  with  adjectives  signifying  clearness;  as, 
dffiog  si  Gvxotydvrcov,  it  is  clear  that  you  are  a  sycophant.  Some- 
times on  with  the  indicative  is  used  ;  as,  Mhfiof  &5i>  on  qGadfao, 
by  its  being  manifest  that  he  loved,  737. 

756. — 065.  4.  Instead  of  the  participle  with  the  verbs  men- 
tioned above,  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  used ;  but  in  that  case, 
the  idea  expressed  is  usually  different ;  e.  g.,  l.-alaxuvopcu  Ttou]- 
Gag,  I  am  ashamed  to  have  done  it ;  aiG%vvo[tcu  noiqGai,  I  am 
ashamed  to  do  it,-  and  therefore  will  not.  2.  6  %£ipd)v  %Q%aro 
yevopevog,  the  winter  was  come  on,  had  actually  commenced  ;  6 
Xeipwv  ^QX£r°  yfyv£G&ai,  the  winter  was  beginning  to  come  on, 
but  had  not  yet  arrived.  3.  yxovGcx.  rov  di]po<T&ern  Uyovra,  I 
heard  Demosthenes  speak ;  foovGa  tov  /IqpoG'dwq  htysw,  I 
heard  (i.  e.  I  am  told),  that  Demosthenes  says.  4.  Icpawero 
xhcu'ow,  he  evidently  wept ;  Icpawero  xkaieiv,  he  seemed  to  weep. 
5.  With  verbs  to  declare,  to  announce,  the  participle  represents 
the  thing  announced  as  a  fact,  the  infinitive,  as  matter  of  report, 
but*  not  asserted  as  a  fact.  With  many  verbs,  however,  it  is  in- 
different which  construction  is  used ;  as,  ^vpcpoQov  am  ravra 
7tQa%&tjva{,  or  tavra  %v[icpOQ(i  IGVI  TtQax&wTa,  it  is  unfortunate 
that  these  things  were  done. 

757. —  Obs.  5.  After  verbs  of  motion,  the  future  participle  is 
used  to  point  out  the  design  or  object  of  the  motion  expressed  by 
the  verb,  and  is  rendered  by  the  English  phrase  "  in  order  to  ;" 
as,  (7«  ye  didd^wv  oiQprjiACU,  I  have  hastened  forward  IN  ORDER 

TO  TEACH  THEE. 

758. — In  this  construction  ooc  is  often  interposed  before  the 
participle ;  as,  naQEGxevd&iro  cog  TZo^e^Govtsg,  they  prepared 
to  make  war. 

13 


290  THE   PAKTICIPLE.  §177. 

759.  —  Sometimes  the  present  participle  is  used  in  this  way  ; 
as,  nfynei  fu  yfyovicLi  he  sent  me  to  carry.     The  future  partici- 
ple after  tQ^o^ai  is  only  a  circumlocution  for  the  future  tense  ; 
as,  £Q%O[ACU  (pQaccov,  for  qp^adco,  I  will  speak  ^  £Q%oficu 
vovpevog,  I  shall  die,  or,  /  am  about  to  die. 

760.  —  IV.  Joined  with  hav&dvco,  cpftdvco,  rvy^dv 

<fec.,  the  participle  is  used  to  express  the  main  action  or  state,  and 
rendered  in  the  indicative,  while  the  verb  with  which  it  is  joined, 
expressing  a  subordinate  circumstance,  is  often  rendered  as  an 
adverb  ;  thus,  SUfctfw  vasxcpvyoor,  he  escaped  unperceived  ;  tov 
(povea  hav&dvM  ^oaxoo^,  he  unconsciously  feeds  his  murderer  ; 
ecp&rjv  dtyehav,  I  took  it  away  just  before  ;  erv^sv  dmcar,  he  went 
away  accidentally  ;  trv%ov  naQOvrsg,  they  ivcre  accidentally  pres- 
ent j  diarefal  naQwv,  he  is  continually  present. 


76  1  .  —  Note.  The  participle  mv  is  wanting  with  adjectives,  and  some- 
times without  them  ;  as,  tvyxdvft,  xahrj  (sc.  ovaa\  she  happens  to  be 
beautiful.  With  a  negative,  y&avo)  may  be  rendered  scarcely,  no  soon- 
er ;  as,  oi'/x  eq>&r]o~av  7tv&6^voi^,  they  no  sooner  heard.  Sometimes  it  is 


followed  by  the  infinitive  instead  of  the  participle  ;  as,   Tiovygbs  av 
q>&do~tt>£  tefavrriffai,  n^iv,  x.  r.  L,  a  wretched  man  would  sooner  die  than, 


762.  —  Obs.  6.  In  the  same  sense,  these  verbs  stand  sometimes 
in  the  participle  with  other  finite  verbs  ;  as,  dnb  refysog 
Aett>Gw,  he  sprung  unobserved  from  the  wall  ; 

V7T£<7%6pt]v,  which  I  happened  to  promise. 

763.  —  V:  A  participle  with  the  verbs  eifj 

«^co,  and  7/xco,  is  often  used  as  a  circumlocution  for  the  verb  to 
which  it  belongs,  and  these  verbs  take  the  place  of  auxiliaries  ; 
thus,  TtQO^s^orsg  riGav  for  rtQoefispfjxeicav,  they  had  gone  for- 
ward ;  pfaag  fyeig  for  %J/j(ta$  you  have  married  ;  tfavpaGag 
e%a  for  Te&avpaxa,  J  have  admired,  &c. 

764.  —  Obs.  7.  Instead  of  a  simple  verb  signifying  "to  go 
away,"  the  verb  ofyopai  is  frequently  joined  with  a  participle  ; 
the  former,  to  express  the  idea  of  departure  ;  the  latter,  to  con- 
nect with  it  the  idea  of  the  manner  •,  both  ctf  which  may  generally 
be  rendered  by  a  simple  verb  ;  thus,  cp^er    dnoTTidpevog,  he  de- 
parted FLYING,  i.  e.  he  flew  away  ;  (p/ero  cpKvyow,  he  departed 
fleeing,  he  escaped  ;  <$%ovro  daofteovreg,  they  ran  away  ;  o'l^erai 
ftavtov,  hf.  is  dead.     Homer  uses  fiawo)  in  the  same  manner. 

.  765.  —  VI.  The  participle,  in  definitions  of  time,  is  often  joined 
with  the  adverbs  aviixa,  ev&vg,  fiera^v,  apa,  the  last,  with  the 
dative  ;  as,  cog  avrixa  y&Spfroe,  as  soon  as  he  was  born  ; 


§  178.  THE   CASE  ABSOLUTE.  291 


v,  during  the  digging  ;  apa  ?<$  IIQI  ev&vs  a^/o^sWp,  on 
the  first  commencement  of  spring. 

766.  —  VII.  The  participles  of  some  verbs,  when  joined  with 
other  verbs,  appear  to  be  used  in  an  adverbial  sense,  or  at  least, 
to  denote  a  circumstance  which,  in  our  language,  is  better  ex- 
pressed by  an  adverb  ;  as,  a^o^erog  einov,  I  said  in  the  begin- 
ning ;  aQ^dpevog  dno,  especially  ;  Tstevrow,  lastly  ;  diakmwv 
XQOVOV,  after  some  time.  &£g>o>?  and  aywv  "with  verbs  which 
signify  to  give,  to  place,  and  the  like,  are  redundant  ;  as,  qt'Qcov 
$cox£,  he  gave  ;  —  with  verbs  of  motion  cpeQcav  expresses  zeal, 
quickness,  &c.  :  with  their  cases,  they  are  equivalent  to  the  Latin 
cum,  with.  A  participle  joined  to  its  own  verb,  or  to  one  of  sim- 
ilar signification,  appears  to  be  redundant  ;  as,  iaaiv  i'ovreg,  they 
went  ;  «qp//  ksycor,  he  said  ;  7.fyzi  cpdg,  he  says. 

j£5F"  For  the  dative  of  the  participle  with  a  personal  pronoun 
after  the  verb  iavl,  see  540. 


§178.  THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

767. — RULE  LXIL  A  substantive  with  a  par- 
ticiple whose  case  depends  on  no  other  word,  is 
put  in  the  genitive  absolute  ;  as, 

0eov  didovrog,  ovdw  ia%vei  (f&ovof,  WHEN  GOD  GIVES,  envy 
avails  nothing. 

768. — Rein.  The  genitive  is  said  to  be  absolute,  in  this  construction, 
because  it  is  neither  governed  by,  nor  is  dependent  on,  any  word  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  in  the  sentence  with  which  it  is  connected,  and 
might  be  separated  from  it  without  affecting  its  construction.  Yet, 
strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  really  absolute  in  such  a  sense  as  to  be  with- 
out government,  or  that  there  is  no  more  reason  for  its  being  in  the 
genitive  than  in  any  other  case  ;  for  the  absolute  clause  will  generally 
be  found  to  express  a  circumstance  of  time,  and  so  may  come  under  642 ; 
as, 

K.VQOV  pcurdtvovroq,  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (sc.  Ini). 

Oiayvrtq  adfaia*  &twv  &tk6vro)v3   Theagnes  is  safe  from   THE  GODS 

WILLING   IT. 

769.— Obs.  1.  The  participles  of  elfu,  ylvopai,  and  some 
others,  are  frequently  omitted  ;  as,  fijttov  povyg,  sc.  ovcys,  .1  being 
alone. 

770. —  Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence,  as  if 
it  were  a  noun,  is  used  absolutely  with  the  participle ;  as,  nvQ 


292  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS.  §179. 


rovg  ravQovg,  [M?&okoyq&&TO§,  tJiat  bulls  breathe  fire,  being 
circulated  as  a  story. 

771.  —  Obs.  3.  The  DATIVE  ABSOLUTE  is  used  to  express  the 
fixed  time  (see  641);  as,  nsQiiovn  ds  r<$  Inavrcp,  after  the  year 
had  elapsed  ;  and  also  when  the  subject  of  the  participle  may  be 
considered  as  that  in  reference  to  which  the  action  of  the  verb 
takes  place. 

772.  —  Obs.  4.   Tie  NOMINATIVE  and  ACCUSATIVE  are  some- 
times used  absolutely.     These  instances,  however,  probably  arise 
from  an  omission  of  some  words,  which,  being  supplied,  complete 
the  construction  ;  as,   dvol^avreg  rov  aaparog  TtoQOvg,  nakiv 
yivsrai  rb  Ttvg,  when  they  have  opened  the  pores  of  the  body,  there 
is  again  fire  ;  i.  e.  cog  avoil*avreg  OOGI,  &c.  ;  ravra  ywopwa, 
these  things  being  done  •  i.  e.  fisra  ravra,  &c. 

773.  —  Obs.  5.  The  participles  of  impersonal  verbs,  and  other 
rerbs  used  impersonally,  are  put  absolutely  in  the  nominative  or 
accusative  neuter  ;  as,  l£6v,  it  being  permitted  ;  dt'ov,  it  being 
necessary  ;  doxovv,  since  it  seems  proper  ;  thus,  dia  ri  fierwg, 
l%bv  amwai,  why  dost  thou  r&nain,  IT  BEING  IN  THY  POWER  to 
depart  ? 

-774.-  —  Obs.  6.  The  construction  with  the  participle  is  often 
preceded  by  the  particles  cog,  acre,  are,  oia,  #//,  olov,  when  a 
reason  of  something  done  by  another  is  expressed  ;  as,  laicona 
wg  ndvrag  eldorag,  or  Ttdvrwv  eldorcov,  he  held  his  peace  BE- 
CAUSE ALL  KNEW. 


§  179.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

775. — Conjunctions  serve  to  connect  words  or  sentences  to- 
gether ;  this  connection  is  of  two  _kinds  : 

776. — I.  Of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  which  are  complete  of 
themselves  and  independent  of  each  other.  These  are  connected 
by  conjunctions,  simply  -connective  or  disjunctive,  332-1,  2  ;  and 
the  parts  thus  connected  have  a  similar  construction  :  hence, 

77Y. — RULE  LXIII.  Conjunctions  couple  the 
same  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  and  cases  of  nouns 
and  pronouns ;  as, 

>  xca  tldov,  they  came  and  saw. 

rov  aartQa  KCU  rqv  ^rsQa,  honour  thy  father  and  thy 
mother. 


§  179.  CONSTRUCTION   OF  CONJUNCTIONS.  293 

778. — Obs.  1.  To  this,  rule  there  are  many  exceptions  as  it 
respects  the  tenses  of  verbs  ;  see  an  example,  198,  Obs.  3. 


779. — II.  But  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  are  often 
variously  related,  and  have  a  certain  dependence  upon  each  other, 
the  nature  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  conjunction  employed, 
and  the  mood  of  the  verb  with  which  it  is  joined.  The  general 
principles  of  this  connection  are  expressed  in  the  following  rules  : 

780. — :RuLE  LXIV.  Conjunctions  which,  do  not 
imply  doubt  or  contingency,  are  for  the  most  part 
joined  with  the  indicative  mood  (696,  697)  ;  as, 

OVTOI  si  rtGav  avdQeg  dya&ot,  ovx  av  aore  ravra  87taG%ov, 
if  these  HAD  BEEN  good  men,  they  would  never  have  suf- 
fered these  things. 


781. — RULE  LXV.  Conjunctions  which  imply 
doubt  or  contingency,  or  which  do  not  regard  a 
thing  as  actually  existing,  are  for  the  most  part 
joined  with  the  subjunctive* and  optative  moods 
(§m);as, 

si  rig  aiQsaiv  poi  doly,  IF  ANY  ONE  SHOULD  GIVE  me  the 
•     choice. 

782. —  Obs.  2.  As  the  meaning  of  a  conjunction  varies  in  dif- 
ferent connections,  the  same  conjunction  is  often  found  with  dif- 
ferent moods.  *  On  this  subject  no  very  definite  or  satisfactory 
rules  can  be  given.  ' 

783. — -Tbe  particles  ydq,  dal,  #//,  dfaore,  sir  a,  STieira,  xal, 
are  often  used  not  so  much  to  connect,  as  to  give  strength  to  a 
question,  like  the  English  then,  but,  yet. 

784. — The  Greeks  do  not  distinguish  direct  and  indirect  ques- 
tions, like  the  Latins,  by  different  moods  (Lat.  Gr.  627-5).  In 
Greek,  the  direct  question  is  usually  made  by  the  definite  inter- 
rogative particles  7iwgy  TToreQog,  nore,  TTOV,  not*  nnvixa,  ng,  &c. 
— the  indirect  by  oncog,  onoregog,  OTIOTE,  OTTOV,  onoi,  onqnxa, 
OGTtg,  &c.  But"  here  there  are  many  exceptions^ 

For  further  remarks  on  conjunctive  and  adverbial  particles^ 
see  §125. 


294:  ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES.  §179. 


785.—  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES, 

A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes  complete  sense  ; 
as,  6  av&QWTiof;  iffrw.  BV^TQ^  man  is  mortal. 

All  sentences  are  either  simple  or  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  only  a  single  affirmation  ;  as,  o  /9/oc;  fori 
i>?,  life  is  short. 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  con- 
nected together  ;  as,  #*6<,'  iatvy  o?  Ttdvta  xi>/?*£i/£. 


786.  —  SIMPLE   SENTENCES. 

A  simple  sentence  or  proposition  consists  of  two  parts  —  thq,  subject 
and  the  predicate. 

The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 

The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

The  subject  is  commonly  a  noun  or  pronoun,  but  may  be  any  thing, 
however  expressed,  about  which  we  can  speak  or  think. 

The  predicate  properly  consists  of  two  parts  —  the  attribute  affirmed 
of  the  subject,  and  the  copula,  by  which  the  affirmation  is  made  ;  thus, 
in  the  sentence,  6  Qtos  iarw  aya&oq,  the  subject  is  Qtoq;  the  predi- 
cate is  lailv  aya&6<;,  of  which  aya&6$  is  the  attribute,  and  iarlv  the 
copula.  In  most  cases,  the  attribute  and  copula  are  expressed  by  one 
word  ;  as,  ITZTTOS  r^i/f^  the  horse  runs.  357. 

The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  forms  no  part  of  a  sen- 
tence. • 

The  predicate  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a  preposi- 
tion with  its  case,  an  adverb,  a  participle,  an  infinitive  mood,  or  clause 
of  a  sentence,  as  an  attribute,  connected  with,  and  affirmed  of,  the  sub- 
ject by  a  copulative  verb  (437)  ;  or,  it  may  be  a  verb  which  includes  in 
itself  both  attribute  and  copula,  and  is  therefore  called  an  attributive 
verb. 

787.  —  THE   SUBJECT: 

The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  either  grammatical  or  logical. 

I.  The  grammatical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  unlim- 
ited by  other  words. 

The  logical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  together  with 
all  the  words  or  phrases  by  which  it  is  limited  or  defined  ;  thus,  in  the 
sentence,  6  /*eAa<;  olvoq  IGTU  DotTitMOKaToq,  the  grammatical  subject  is 
olvoq  ;  the  logical,  6  ju&cu;  olvoq.  Again  : 

II.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  may  be  either  simple  or  compound. 

A  simple  subject  consists  of  one  subject  of  thought,  either  unlimited, 
as  the  grammatical,  or  limited,  as  the  logical  subject. 

A  compound  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  subjects,  to 
which  belongs  but  one  predicate  ;  as,  JSwx^ar^s  xcu  2o\o)v  aoyol  yo~av.* 


§179.  ANALYSIS   OF  SENTENCES.  295 

788. — MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE   SUBJECT. 

A  grammatical  subject  may  be  modified,  limited,  or  Described  in  va- 
rious ways ;  viz.,  1.  By  a  noun  in  apposition.  2.  By  a  noun  in  the 
genitive  or  dative.  3.  By  an  adjunct,  i.  e.  a  preposition  and  its  case. 
4.  By  an  adjective  word,  i.  e.  an  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun, 
or  participle.  5.  By  a  relative  and  its  clause. 


Each  grammatical  subject  may  have  several  modifications ;  and  if 
las  none,  the  grammatical  and  logical  subject  are  the  same. 


»t  has 

789. — MODIFICATION  OF  MODIFYING  WORDS. 

Modifying,  or  limiting  words,  may  themselves  be  modified. 

1.  A  noun  modifying  another  may  itself  be  modified  in  all  the  ways 

in  which  a  noun,  as  a  grammatical  subject,  is  modified. 

2.  An  adjective  qualifying  a  noun  may  itself  be  modified — 1.  By  an 
adjunct     2.  By  a  noun.     3.  By  an  infinitive  mood  or  clause  of 

-- ••         a  sentence.     4.  By  an  adverb. 

3.  An  adverb  may  be  modified — 1.  By  another  adverb.     2.  By  a 

substantive  in  an  oblique  case. 

790. — THE  PREDICATE. 

L  The  predicate,  like  the  subject^  is  either  grammatical  or  logical 

The  grammatical  predicate  consists  of  the  attribute  and  copula,  not 
modified  by  other  words. 

The  logical  predicate  is  the  grammatical,  with  all  the  words  or 
phrases  that  modify  it ;  thus,  rj  ^li&rj  /^xoct  ftavla  iarLv :  the  gramma- 
tical predicate  is  /tavla  iarlv  ;  the  logical,  (JLMQCL  fnavia,  lativ. 

"When  the  grammatical  predicate  has  no  modifying  terms,  the  logi- 
cal and  grammatical  are  the  same. 

II.  The  predicate,  like  the  subject,  is  either  simple  or  compound. 

A  simple  predicate,  affirms  but  one  thing  of  its  subject ;  as,  6  pioq 
figa/vs  IGTW  ;  ininvtov  oi  avffioi>. 

A  compound  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  predicates 
affirmed  of  one  subject ;  as,  Kddftos'aTteKTave  tbv  ^ccxovra,  xai  effmtr- 
Qt  tovq  odovtaq  avrov. 

791. — MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PREDICATE. 

The  grammatical  predicate  may  be  modified  or  limited  in  different 
ways. 

I.  When  the  attribute  in  the  predicate  is  a  noun,  it  is  modified — 1. 
By  a  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  or  describing  the  attribute.     2.  By  an 
adjective  or  participle  limiting  the  attribute.        . 

II.  When  the  grammatical  predicate  is  an  attributive  verb,  it  is  mod- 
ified— 1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  its  object.     2.  By  an  adverb.    3 
By  an  adjunct.     4.  By  an  infinitive.     5.  By  a  dependent  clause. 


296  EXAMPLES  OF  ANALYSIS.  §  179. 

792. — Nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  other  words  modifying  the 
predicate,  may  themselves  be  modified,  as  similar  words  are  when 
modifying  the  subject. 

Infinitives  and  participles  modifying  the  predicate,  may  themselves 
be  modified  in  all  respects,  as  the  attributive  verb  is  modified. 

COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

793. — A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  senten- 
ces or  propositions  connected  together.  The  propositions  which  make 
up  a  compound  sentence,  are  called  members,  or  clauses. 

794. — The  propositions  or  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence,  are  ei- 
ther independent  or  dependent ;  in  other  words,  coordinate,  or  subor- 
dinate. 

An  independent  clause  is  one  that  makes  complete  sense  by  itself. 

A  dependent  clause  is  one  that  makes  complete  sense  only  in  con- 
nection with  another  clause. 

The  clause  on  which  another  depends,  is  called  the  leading  clause ; 
its  subject  is  the  leading  subject;  and  its  predicate,  the  leading  predi- 
cate. 

795. — Clauses  of  the  same  kind,  whether  independent  or  dependent, 
are  connected  by  such  conjunctions  as  xal,  ti,  ?/,  ytoi,,  <fcc. 

796. — Dependent  clauses  having  finite  verbs,  are  connected  with 
their  leading  clauses  in  three  different  ways  ;  as,  1.  By  a  relative.  2. 
By  a  conjunction.  3.  By  an  adverb. 

797. — A  subordinate  clause,  consisting  of  an  infinitive  with  its  sub- 
ject, is  joined  to  a  leading  clause  without  a  connecting  word. 

ABRIDGED   PROPOSITIONS. 

798. — A  compound  sentence  is  sometimes  converted  into  a  simple 
one,  by  rejecting  the  connective,  and  changing  the  verb  of  the  depend- 
ent clause  into  a  participle.  A  simple  sentence  thus  formed  is  called 
an  abridged  proposition ;  as,  foih&wv  <5e  Ogaxyr,  v\*tv  tic;  0-qfiaq,  hav- 
ing gone  through  Thrace,  he  came  to  Thebes  =  imvdav  de  tf/^JU 
fy.iv  tiq  Sqftaq. 


799.— EXAMPLES  OF  ANALYSIS. 

1. — '0  yofios  tov  KVQIOV  SGTW  aQffl  rye  coyiag,  the  fear  of  the 
Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  of  which — . 

The  logical  subject  is  o  yofioq  tov  KVQIOV. 

The  logical  predicate  is  tativ  agxy  tfa  o~o<piaq. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  <po/9oc;,  shown  to  be  definite  by  the  article 

6,  and  restricted  by  tov  KVQIOV. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  iatlv  ayzy,  of  which  lativ  is  the  copula 

and  agxy  the  attribute,  restricted  by  trjq  aoylaq. 


§  179.  SYNTACTICAL  PAUSING.  297 


2.  —  'O  ^HQaxlJjg  TO  Qonalov,  o  lyogEi,  avrbg  -szspev  Ix 

Hercules  himself  cut,  from  the  forest  of  Nemea,  the  club  which 
he  ivas  accustomed  to  carry. 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  one  leading,  and  one  depend- 

ent clause  connected  by  the  relative  o. 
The  leading  clause,  6  'Hgay.lijq  to  qoTiakov  avroq  srtptv  i*  Nf/uiaq,  is  a 

simple  sentence,  of  which  — 

The  logical  subject  is  6  'Hgay.hrjq  avroq.  • 

The  logical  predicate  is  ertutv  ex  JVtftzaq  TO  Qortahov. 
The  grammatical  subject  is  'H^ctxJlifc,  shown  to  be  definite  by  the  arti- 

cle 6,  and  rendered  emphatic  by  the  definite  pronoun  avroq. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  srffttv,  modified  by  its  object  rbiqoTialov, 

and  by  the  adjunct  ex  IVt/tiaq. 

The  dependent  clause  is  o  (avrbq)  icpogti',  of  which  — 
The  logical  subject  is  avroq  understood,  a  substitute  for  'HipocxAijf?. 
The  logical  predicate  is  o  IffOQu. 
The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  Zrtfitv,  modified  by  its  object  o,  standing 

instead  of  qoztalov,  and,  being  a  relative,  it  is  the  object  of  the 

verb,  and  also  connects  its  clause  with  the  leading  clause. 


800.— SYNTACTICAL  PARSING. 

These  two  sentences,  thus  analyzed,  may  be  parsed  syntactically  in 
the  following  manner : 

FIRST   EXAMPLE. — 'O  cpofiog  rov  KVQIOV  IGTW  aQX*]   rijg   00- 
cpiag. 

eO}  the,  the  definite  article,  in  the  nominative  singular,  masculine,  agree- 
ing with  yoftoq,  and  showing  it  to  be  definite.  Rule,  "  The 
article  agrees,"  <fec.  400,  declined  thus,  6,  ->/,  TO,  &c. 

<p6fioq,  fear,  is  a  noun,  masculine,  second  declension,  cpofioq,  -ov.  It  is 
found  in  the  nominative  singular,  the  subject  of  iarLv.  "The 
subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nominative,"  421. 

rov,  of  the,  the  definite  article,  genitive  singular,  masculine,  agreeing 
with  Kvaiov,  and  showing  it  to  be  definite.  Rule,  as  before, 
400. 

KVQIOV,  Lord,  is  a  noun,  masculine,  second  declension,  Kvgioq  Kvgiov. 
It  is  in  the  genitive  singular,  governed  by  6  g>6fioq,  which  it 
limits.  Rule  V.  (449),  "  One  substantive  governs  another,"  <fec.  ' 

iariv,  is,  is  a  verb  intransitive  irregular,  * ijui,  eao/tcth  v\v,  Root  e.  It  is 
found  in  the  present  indicative,  third  person  singular,  and 
agrees  with  its  subject  yopoq.  Rule  IV.  (420),  "A- verb 
agrees,"  <fcc. 

n>  the.  beginning,  is  a  noun,  feminine,  first  declension,  a(>/7/,  -ijq,  &c. 
It  is  found  in  the  nominative  singular,  the  predicate  after 
io~rlv  its  copula,  and  is  therefore  without  the  article,  403-4. 
Rule  YI.  (436),  "Any  verb,"  <fcc. 

IS* 


298  SYNTACTICAL   PARSING.  §  179. 


tjq  (not  translated),  the  definite  article,  in  the  genitive  singular,  femi- 
nine, agreeing  with  0-o^tac,-,  an  abstract  noun,  403-3.  Rule, 
"The  article  agrees,"  <fcc.  400. 

oyla^j  of  wisdom,  a  noun  feminine,  first  declension,  troqpta,  -etc;.  It  is 
found  in  the  genitive  singular,  governed  by  «£/?/,  which  it 
limits.  Rule  V.  (449),  "  One  substantive  governs  another,"  <fce. 


SECOND  EXAMPLE.  —  '0  '//jocwol^  to  Qonakov,  o  IcpoQEi,  avzbg 
etspw  «x  Afyi$&£,  —  construed  thus  :  '0  jffjoaxAiy?  avrbg 
Stepev  ax  N*p&x$  to  Qonc&ov  o 


C0  (not  translated),  the  definite  article,  in  the  nominative  singular,  mas- 
culine, agreeing  with  'H^axAijfg,  definite,  403-1.  Rule,  "The 
article,"  <fec.  (400),  declined  6,  rj.,  TO,  <fec.  139. 

'H^ccxyUJ?,  Hercules,  contracted  for  'H^axAt^c;  (133),  a  proper  noun,  mas- 
culine, third  declension,  'H^codj/c,-,  -ioq,  contr.  -out;.  It  is  found 
in  the  nominative  singular,  the  subject  of  ettfitv.  "The  sub- 
ject of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nominative,"  421. 

avroq,  himself,  a  definite  adjective  pronoun,  avroq,  -?/,  -6,  182.  It  is 
found  in  the  nominative  singular,  masculine,  and  agrees  with 
'HjgtaxAifci  rendering  it  emphatic.  Rule  II.,  "An  adjective 
agrees,"  <fce.  371  and  394. 

£Tf{itv,  cut,  is  a  verb  transitive,  first  conjugation,  liquid,  ti^vay,  to  cut, 
1  Root  Ttfji,  2  tap,  3  TO/*.  It  is  found  in  the  2  aorist  indicative 
active,  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  rHoaxktj<;.  Rule 
IV.,  "A  verb,  agrees,"  <fcc.  An  irregular  form  for  £ta^f.  See 
the  word,  §  117.  Give  the  tenses  from  the  first  root  —  from  the 
second  —  from  the  third. 

ex,  from,  is  a  preposition  atonic  (e£  before  a  vowel),  of,  out  of,  from,  and 
governs  Nf^iaq. 

Ntpiaq,  the  forest  of  Nemea  (without  the  article,  being  the  first  mention- 
ed), a  proper  noun,  feminine,  first  declension,  TVf^ecc,  -aq.  It  is 
found  in  the  genitive  singular,  governed  by  ex.  Rule  XL  VIII. 
"'Avrl,  dno,  e'x  or  e£,"  <fcc.  (652). 

10,  the,  the  definite  article,  6,  r/,  TO.  It  is  found  in  the  accusative  sin- 
gular, neuter,  agrees  with  ^onaXov,  and  shows  it  to  be  definite. 
Rule,  "The  article  agrees,"  &c.  (400). 

QonaXov,  club,  is  a  noun,  neuter,  third  declension,  ^onaXov,  ^oTtakov.  It 
is  found  in  the  accusative  singular,  the  object  of,  and  governed 
by,  Zrtptv.  Rule  XXV.,  "A  transitive  verb,"  &c.  (564).  It  is 
limited  by  the  relative  clause  following  it. 

o,  which,  the  relative  pronoun,  oc,%,  ?/,  o.  It  is  found  in  the  accusative 
singular,  neuter,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  ^O7ia).ov.  Rule 
III.,  "The  relative  agrees,"  &c.  404.  It  is  governed  in  the  ac- 
cusative by  £<p6flffr.  Rule  XXV.,  "A  transitive  verb,"  &c.  564  ; 
it  connects  its  clause  with  qonakov,  and*  limits  it. 
,  was  accustomed  to  carry  (198,  Obs.  2),  is  a  verb,  transitive,  first 
conjugation,  pure,  q>o(tio),  to  carry,  kindred  to  yeoo),  to  bear. 
Root  yog*  (216).  It  is  found  in  the  imperfect  indicative  active, 
third  person  singular,  contracted  for  eyootf,  and  agrees  with 
its  nominative  avr6<;  understood,  referring  to  'H^axA^g.  Rule 
IV.,  "A  verb  agrees,"  &c.  (420). 


§  180, 181.  PROSODY.  299 


PART    IV. 


PROSODY. 

801. — PROSODY,  in  its  common  acceptation,  treats  of  the 
quantity  of  syllables  and  the  construction  of  verses ;  in  other 
words,  of  Quantity  and  Metre.  In  the  ancient  grammarians, 
applies  to  accents. 


§180.  QUANTITY. 

802. — Quantity  means  the  relative  length  of  time  taken  up  in 
pronouncing  a  syllable. 

1.  In  respect  of  quantity,  every  syllable  is  either  long  or  short. 
When  a  syllable  is  sometimes  long,  and  sometimes  short,  it  is 
said  to  be  common,  or  doubtful. 

2.  The  quantity  of  syllables  is  determined  by  certain  estab- 
lished rules ;  or,  when  no  rule  applies,  by  the  authority  of  the 
poets. 

3.  In  Greek,  the  quantity  of  certain  vowels  is  determined  as 
follows : 

1.  The  vowels  c,  o,  are  naturally  short ;  as, 

2.  "   .       37,  co,  are  naturally  long  ;  as, 

3.  "          a,  t,  v,  are  doubtful ;  as,  apvvco. 

4.  Diphthongs  and  contracted  syllables  are  long ;  as,  Ixee, 
6<piEg,  contracted  ocpl$* 


§181.  I.  POSITION. 
SPECIAL  KULES. 

803. — RULE  I.  A  short  or  doubtful  vowel,  before  two  conso 
nants  or  a  double  letter,  is  almost  always  loag  ;  as, 

TTdMdg, — rtQo'taipev, — COTS  Zevg. 

*  In  the  Prosody  the  accents  are  omitted,  as  they  often  interfere 
with  the  mark  for  the  quantity. 


SOO  PKOSODY.  §  182. 

This  rule  holds  good  in  Epic  poetry,  except  in  proper  names,  and  in 
words  which  could  not  be  used  in  any  other  situation  in  the  verse.  In 
dramatic  writers,  observe  the  following  exceptions : 

Exc.  A  short  or  doubtful  vowel  before  a  inute  and  a  liquid, 
is  common  ;  as,  nargoxhog,  or  natQwIog. 

Obs.  1.  A  short  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  liquid  is  generally  short. 
But  before  a  middle  mute  (/9,  y,  <?),  followed  by  y  in  tragedy,  it  is  mostly 
long;  and  followed  by  A,  /u,,  v,  almost  always  long,  both  in  tragedy  and 
comedy. 

Obs.  2.  A  short  vowel  before  two  liquids  is  always  long,  and  some- 
times before  a  single  liquid,  which  in  this  case  should  be  pronounced  as 
if  double ;  thus,  *la/fr,  pronounced  I'AAa/fc. 

Note  1..  A  short  vowel  in  the  end  of  a  word,  before  ^  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  word  following,  is  long  in  the  dramatic  poets ;  as,  i/nt  ^Tfov. 

Note.  2.  We  sometimes  find  a  short  syllable  before  two  consonants 
(both  mutes),  but  this  is  rare  and  should  not  be  imitated. 


§182.  II.  ONE  VOWEL  BEFORE  ANOTHER. 

804.  —  RULE  II.  A  vowel  before  another  .vowel  is  short,  unless 
lengthened  by  poetic  license  ;  as,  Tzohvai'xog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  a  is  long  in  the  penult  of  nouns  in  aow,  aoro<?;  as,  Ma/6io)v,  Ma%ao- 

And  sometimes  when  the  genitive  ends  in  ojrog;    as; 

£l'daO)V,  /7o(7£K5ofOJ1'0£. 

in  feminine  proper  names  in  «£<,•;  thus,  Qaiq. 

2.  i  is  long  in  the  penult  of  nouns  in  LOW,  lovoq,  and  sometimes  wvoq  ; 

as,  Jlglow,  SlQvovos  or  Jlglowoq  ;  except  yiow. 
-  in  the  penult  of  verbs  in  M  ;  as,  reo)  :   but  the  Attic 
tragic  writers  have  -«». 

3.  t,  is  common  in  the  penult  of  nouns  in  i,a  and  ir\  ;  as,  xa/tot  and  xaAfo. 

4.  v  is  common  in  the  penult  of  verbs  in  vo)  ;  as,  Iff/vo)  or  VG/IIW. 

805.  —  RULE  III.    Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  mostly 
short  at  the  end  of  words,  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a 
vowel  ;  as, 


o  d£ 


bv 


Obs.  1.  A  vowel  in  the  end  of  a  word,  before  a  word  beginning  with 
a  vowel,  does  not  suffer  elision,  as  in  Latin,  unless  an  apostrophe  is 
substituted  (35). 

06s.  2.  Two  vowels,  forming  two  syllables,  frequently  in  poetry 
coalesce  into  one;  as,  /avaio),  II.  a:  15,  where  ioj  form  a  short  syllable. 
This  frequently  takes  place  though  the  vowels  be  in  different  words  ; 
as,  jfovx  «A£,  IL  a.  349.  828-2. 


§  183, 184  PROSODY.  SOI 


§183.  III.    THE  DOUBTFUL  VOWELS  IN  FIEST  AND 
MIDDLE  SYLLABLES. 

806.  —  RULE  IV.  A  doubtful  vowel  before  a  simple  consonant 
is  short  ;  as,  x«xo£. 

EXCEPTIONS. 
1.  a  is  long  in  nouns  in  a/tow,  avo)(),  a^o?;  as,  rttdofid/tow,  dy 


in  numerals  in  offtos  ;  as,  dt,dxoffi>oq. 
in  derivatives  from  verbs  in  aa)  pure,  and  gao)  ;  thus, 
rom  dvi,do)  ;  Idff^ioq  from  idofiai,  ;  xara^aro?  from 
and  ftta/act  from 


from  ntgdo)  ;  Ttgdffiq  from  (TttTt^dffxo)  for) 
2.  i  is  long  in  the  penult  of  nouns  in  imj,  I>T?J,  rt^s,  m?  ;  thus, 
3  AffQoSlrr},  no).lTris,  no^lri^. 

in  the  penult  of  verbs  in  */?o;,  ww  ;  thus, 


so  also  y.lveo),  dlviw,  <fec. 
3.  v  is  long  in  verbals  in  v/ua,  i'/^o?,  vii^),  vvoq,  VTO)Q  ;  as, 


in  pronouns;  as,  ciymg. 

in  the  penult  of  verbs  in  vvw,  VQW, 


UNIVERSITl 


§  184.  IV.    THE  DOUBTFUL 

T    A  ~D 
LA±> 

807.  —  RULE  V.    «,  /,  v,  in  the  end  of  a  word,  are  short  ;  as, 
povaa,  pell,  y'kvv.v. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  ./4  in  the  end  of  a  word  is  long,  viz  : 

—  In  nouns  in  ?  a,  $a,  &a  ;  as,  &t  a,  Ayda,  Maq&a  ;  exc.  dxav&a. 

—  In  the  dual  number;  as,  TT^O^T/TCC,  ftovffd. 

—  In  polysyllables  in  caa  ;  as,  2tlr]vai,d. 
-  in  ««,  derived  from  verbs  in  tvo)  ;  as,  Sovfabd, 

paadtid,  from  Sovlivo)j  fiaadtva).     But  /?a<7J.fta,  a  queen, 
has  the  final  a  short. 

—  In  IGL  ;   as,  xce>Ua,  except  verbals  in  tQia  ;   as,  i//cdT£«x  ;  and 


—  In  the  vocative  of  nouns  in  a?  of  the  1st  declension  ;  as, 


—  In  feminines  from  adjectives  in  o?;  as,  o^o 

—  In  nouns  in  qa  not  preceded  by  a  diphthong  ;  as,  ypfgd 

Except  dyxvQd,  yfyvgd,  KtQxvQa,  okvQoi,  ffxoloTtwdgdj 
tavayga,  and  compounds  of  pergo)  ;  as, 

—  In  poetic  vocatives  ;  as,  UctAAa 


302  PEOSODY.  §  184. 

2.  i  final  is  long  in  the  names  of  letters ;  as,  nl. 

3.  v  final  is  long  in  the  names  of  letters ;  as,  f4.v,  vv. 

in  verbs  in  vfw ;  as  lyv. 

——————  in  iitral^ij  and  yo  u. 

808. — RULE  VI.    A  doubtful  vowel  in  the  final  syllable,  fol- 
lowed by  a  simple  consonant,  is  short ;  as,  p&av,  lapaas. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  av  is  long  in  masculines;  as,  Tiidv,  and  Ttdv,  when  not  in  com- 

position. 

in  accusatives  when  their  nominatives  are  long;   as, 

in  adverbs ;  as,  dydv. 

2.  aq  in  *d(>  and  ydf)  is  long ;  in  yag  it  is  either  long  or  short. 

3.  aq  is  long  in  nouns  of  the  first  declension  ;  as,  Aivudq, 
in   words    having   avroq  in  the  genitive  ;   as, 

also  in  y/udq,  Vjiidq,  xQdq. 

4.  w  is  long  in  nouns  in  w  which  have  woq  in  the  genitive ;  as, 


in  nouns  which  have  two  terminations  in  the  nomina- 


tive ;«  as,  axviv,  or  dxnq. 

also  in  yftiv,  v^ 


5.  MJ  is  long  in  monosyllables  ;  as,  foq  •   but  the  indefinite  t(,q  is 

common. 
--  —  in  nouns  which  have  two  terminations  in  the  nomina- 

tive;  t^,  dxTlq,  VLKIIV. 

--  in  feminine  dissyllables  in  iq,  i,doq,  or  t^o?;  as,  xvtj/ulq, 
xvy/Mdoq  ;  oyvlq,  ogvir&oq  ;  except  aoTt^q,  igtq,  %a{>lq,  and  a 
few  others. 

-  in  polysyllables  preceded  by  two  short  syllables  ;  as, 


6.  w  is  long  in  nouns  which  have  vvoq  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 


in  nouns  which  have  two  terminations  in  the  nomina- 
tive ;  as,  qiQQxvq,  or  qioQuvv. 

--  in  accusatives  from  vq  in  the  nominative  ;  as,  otpQvv 
from  ocpovq. 

-  in  the  ultimate  of  verbs  in  V/M,  ;  as,  eq>vv  from  (pvpi,. 

-  vvv,  now  ;  but  in  vvv,  enclitic,  it  is  short. 

7.  VQ  in  the  end  of  a  word  is  always  long  ;  as,  ftctQTvg 

8.  vq  is  long  in  monosyllables;  as,  piiq. 

-  in  nouns  which  have  two  terminations  in  the  *  nomina- 
tive ;  as,  qioQxvq,  (pogxvv. 

-  in  nominatives  which  have  vvroq  or  oq  pure  in  the  gen- 


itive;  as,  fomvvq,  dtwvvvtoq',  0(fQvq,  oq>QVOq. 

in  y.o)/u,rtq,  xo)ftv&oq ;  and 

—  in  the  last  syllable  of  verbs  in  v^\  as,  l<pvq. 


§185,186.  PROSODY.  303 


§185.  V.    DOUBTFUL  VOWELS  IN  THE  INCREMENT 

OF  NOUNS. 

809. — RULE  VII.  The  quantity  of  the  nominative  remains  ir 
the  oblique  cases  ;  thus,  Twav,  Tirdvog ; 

•*      EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  VQ  in  the  nominative  shortens  the  crement ; 

2.  A  vowel,  long  by  position,  in  the  nominative,  shortens  the  ere- 
ment  in  the  oblique  cases ;  as,  ai'Aotl,  ai/Aaxo?..    But  nouns  in  a£  after 
a  vowel  have  the  crement  long ;  as,  vt a£,  vtaxoq. 

Likewise  #o;(>ai:,  if(ux£,  xya><?a£/  xo£c?a5,  Aa/9(>a£,  ota£,  £«£,  <Ti'£g>a£, 
#£ra£,  with  many  words  in  vy,  VTIOS,  and  t£,  tyoq  or  txo? ;  to  which  add 
yqvy,  yvtyf  and  generally  BffiqvS,  ffodulz,  ogtvs,  aavdv£. 

3.  o?  pure  in  the  genitive,  from  a  long  syllable  in  the  nominative, 
varies  the  crement;  as,  dgiiq,  fyvos,  or  dgvoq. 

4.  The  dative  plural,  after  a  syncope,  has  the  penult  short;  as, 


§  186.  VI.    DOUBTFUL  VOWELS  IN  THE  INFLECTION 
OF  VERBS. 

The  doubtful  vowels,  a,  v,  v,  are  short  in  verbs,  unless  it  be  other- 
wise specified  in  the  Rules. 

8  1  0.  —  RULE  VIII.  a  and  v  before  GO.  in  participles,  and  al- 
ways before  GI  in  verbs,  are  long  ;  as,  tvipaaa,  dsixwaa,  rerv- 
cpaai,  dstxvvai  (§  6,  18). 

FUTURE. 

81  1.  —  RULE  IX.  The  future  in  &CTCO,  wco,  VGCO,  from  aco  after 
a  vowel,  or  from  gam,  too,  e#oo,  vco,  lengthen  the  penult  ;  as, 


But  the  future  in  acrco,  IGW,  VGCO,  from  a£«,  t^co,  vS'co,  shorter 
^he  penult  ;  as, 


812.  —  RULE  X.  Liquid  verbs  shorten  the  penult  in  the  future  ; 

US,  XQWOO,  XQWCO. 

813.  —  RULE  XI.    The  second  future,  in  the  passive  voice, 
shortens  the  root-syllable  ;  as,  refwrn,  rd^GO^ai  ;  cpawco, 


304:  PROSODY.  §  187. 

THE    OTHER    TENSES. 

814.  —  RULE  XII.    The  doubtful  vowels  have  the  same  quan- 
tity in  the  tenses  as  in  their  roots  ;  thus, 

1  Root.    Y.QW,  -  XQlVO),  ixQlVQV,  KQlVO[JI.CU>,  ix(JlVO{M]V. 

2  Root.   XQIV,  —  x£X£)ixa,  exfx 


2  Root.  tvjTt—ltvTiov,  ItvTtOftrjv, 

3  Root,  rim,  —  Tfivna,  IriTimiw. 

Exc.  1.  Liquid  verbs  in  the  future  active  and  middle,  as  in  Rule  X. 

JSxc.  2.  The  initial  <,  and  v,  in  the  augmented  tenses  and  moods,  are 
long  ;  as,  <i'/.oftai>,  'l^o^v. 

The  quantity  of  a  doubtful  vowel  in  the  foot  is  ascertained  as  fol- 
lows : 

815.  —  I.  Verbs  in  aco  pure,  or  in  Qaco,  too,  i&co,  and  vco,  have 
the  final  vowel  of  the  first  root  long,  unless  followed  by  a  vowel  ; 
if  followed  by  a  vowel,  it  comes  under  Rule  II.     All  others  are 
usually  short. 

816.  —  II.  ^The  final  syllable  of  the,  second  root  is  always  short, 
unless  made  long  by  position. 

817.  —  III.  The  first  root  of  liquid  verbs  is  shortened  in  the 
future,  244-1. 

SPECIAL  RULES  FOR  VERBS  IN  fU. 

818.  —  RULE  XIII.    The  proper  reduplication  fe  short,  unless 
made  long  by  position  ;  as,  rifrtjiu.     The  improper  reduplication 
is  common  ;  as,  ftyfU  or  flrj[M. 

819.  —  RULE  XIV.    a,  not  before  aa  or  GI,  is  every-  where 
short  ;  as,  iartipep,  to-rare. 

820.  —  RULE  XV.  v  is  long  in  polysyllables,  only  in  the  sin- 
gular of  the  indicative  active  ;  every  where  else  it  is  short  ;  as, 
dswvvfu,  fftoxrifal,  dewvvrco,  deMvvpcu,  &c. 

821.  —  In  dissyllables,  it  is  every  where  long;  as,  dv^v,  dvrov;,  dv- 


§  187.  VLL   DERIVATION  AND  COMPOSITION. 

822.  —  RULE  XVI.  Derivatives  follow  the  quantity  of  their 
primitives  ;  and  compounds,  that  of  the  simple  words  of  which 
they  are  composed  ;  as,  ^ 

juotl/uo^)  TlftavtoQ,  &c. 
v,  Mevikdoq,  &c. 

uo^xaxog,  &c. 


,  TtoMvglvoq,  &c. 


§  188, 189.  PKOSODY.  305 

823. — RULE  XVII.    a  privative  before  two  short  syllables,  is 
frequently  long  ;  as,  axaparog. 

824. — Also  ffvv  in  composition  is  sometimes  long ;  as, 


§188.  VIII.  DIALECTS. 

ATTIC. 

825. — RULE  XVHL   The  Attics  lengthen  a  in  the  accusative 
of  nouns  in  svg  ;  as,  fiaadevg,  ace.  fiacdea,  contrary  to  Rule  V. 

Also,  *  instead  of  a,  *,  o ;  as,  ravrZ  for  ravra, ;  6  J?  for  6 J*. 
The  Paragogic  »  in  pronouns  (the  dative  plural  excepted),  and  in 
adverbs,  is  long ;  as,  OVTOGI,  vvvlj  Dat.  pi.  tovroiGl. 

826. — IONIC. 

1.  The  Comparative  in  *ov  shortens  the  neuter ;  the  Attics  lengthen 
it;  as,  xaWtov,  I.  xaUJov,  A. 

2.  In  adjectives  of  time,  *  is  long ;  as,  O7to)()lvoq. 

3.  In  verbs,  the  Ionic  a,  GI  not  following  it,  is  short ;  as,  lara&  for 

827. DORIC    ANb    J3OLIC. 

1.  The  Doric  a  is  long ;  the  ^Eolic  is  short ;  as,  Alvua,  Doric  for 
^Eolic  for  innotriq,  &c. 


828.—  §  189.  IX.  POETIC  LICENSE. 

1.  The  last  syllable  of  a  verse  is  common,  except  in  Iambic,  Trochaic, 
Anapaestic,  and  Greater  Ionic. 

2.  The  2v^ev^q  unites  two  syllables  into  one  ;  as, 

-J       i        J       I 

Xgvatw  ava  (TX^TTT^W  KOLI  ihaGiro  naviaq  ^A/aiov^ 


s__ 
'H  Aot^-fT  ^  OVK  Ivorjffw  aoKTocTO  df  f,ity 

'H  pi  xtfaai,  Gxt8i<y  Tttgaav  ftiya  lartpa  ftak 
8.  The  Arsis  mak^s  a  short  syllable  in  the  end  of  a  word  long  ;  as, 

i,  IGGI>  q>dt  ixvQt  dtwd<;  rt, 


Note  1.  The  Arsis  means  the  elevation  of  the  voice,  which,  in  Hexa- 
meter verse,  is  always  on  the  first  syllable  of  a  foot. 


306  PROSODY.  §  190. 

Note  2.  A  short  syllable  is  sometimes,  and  but  very  rarely,  leligth- 
ened  at  the  end  of  a  foot ;  thus, 

ii        ill 


829. — Besides  these  deviations  from  the  usual  rules  of  quantity, 
the  Poets  sometimes  varied  the  quantities  of  syllables,  as  follows  . 

I.  They  lengthened  a  syllable,  1.  By  doubling  or  inserting  a  conso- 
nant ;  as,  tddtt,crt  for  * duet ;    dntohc;  for  cinofaq.     2.  By  changing  a 
vowel  into  a  diphthong ;  as,  dtvopai  for  dio^ou,.     3.  By  Metathesis ;  as, 
InQa&ov  for  ^naQ&ov. 

II.  They  shortened  a  syllable,  By  rejecting  one  vowel  of  a  diph- 
thong ;  as,  l^ov  for  eilov. 

III.  They  increased^  the  number  of  syllables,  1.  By  resolving  a  diph 
thong;  as,  avro)  for  avro).     2.  By  inserting  or  adding  a  letter  or  sylla 
ble;  as,  aaGyttoq  for  dff/tToq;  r^hoq  for  r/Ato?  ;  far^t,  for  fity. 

IV.  They  lessened  the  number  of  syllables,  1.  By  aphseresis ;  as,  VEQ&C 
for  evtg&f.     2.  By  syncope;    as,  tygfro  for  tyttyiTo.     3.  By  apocope 
and  apostrophe;  as,  do)  for  Joj^ot;  pttolQ*  for  IIVQMX,. 

Other  varieties  will  be  learned  by  practice.  Many  conjectures  have 
been  made  with  regard  to  the  ancient  orthography,  and  the  principles 
of  versification  as  depending  upon  it.  But  the  best  of  them  deserve 
the  credit  of  ingenuity  alone ;  for,  as  they  rest  on  no  unquestionable 
authority,  they  are  of  little  or  no  use. 


§190.  FEET. 

830 — A  foot,  in  metre,  is  composed  of  two  or  more  syllables 
strictly  regulated  by  time ;  and  is  either  simple  or  compound.  Of  the 
simple  feet,  four  are  of  two,  and  eight  are  of  three  syllables.  There 
are  sixteen  compound  feet,  each  of  four  syllables.  These  varieties  are 
as  follows : 

831.— Simple  feet  of  two  Syllables. 

Pyrrichius  ^  -^  #fog. 

Spondeus  —  —  tvTttti. 

Iambus  -— <-  —  Xtyw. 

Trochseus  —  ^  aw^a. 

832. — Simple  feet  of  three  Syllables.     . 

Tribrachys  ^  ^  ^  Ttotepoq. 

Molossus  —  —  —  €i//ol)jy. 

Dactylus  —  ^s  ^  pagi -vgoq. 

Anapsestus  ^-"  -^  —  paGihvq. 

Bachius  ^  —  —  tnijtijq. 

Antibachius  —  — 7  ^  dfixvii/M. 

Amphibrachys  >— '  —  ^  fi&ijfti. 

Amphimacer  —  •*-'  —  d 


§191,192.      -  PROSODY.  307 

833. —  Compound  feet  of 'four  Syllables. 

Chori ambus  —  *— '  ^  —  aolyooffT'vfj  a  trochee  and  an  iambus. 

Antispastus  >-" -— '  dnd^Tt]ftd  an  iambus  and  a  trochee. 

Ionic  a  in aj ore •— '  •— '  xoafifjro^d  a  spondee  and  a  pyrrich. 

Ionic  a  minore  ^ -  ^ nteovt-/.Tffi  a  pyrrich  and  a  spondee. 

First  Paeon  —  ^  ^  ^  do-ryoloyot;  a  trochee  and  a  pyrrich. 

Second ^  —  *-<  ^  ard£io<;  an  iambus  and  a  pyrrich. 

Third     ^  ^  —  ^  dvdotj^d  a  pyrrich  and  a  trochee. 

Fourth >— '  ^  ^  —  •Q-to'ytvf'fi  a  pyrrich  and  an  iambus. 

First  Epitrite  ^ d/ud^Todfj  an  iambus  and  a  spondee. 

Second —  ^ dvogovovTifi  a  trochee  and  a  spondee. 

Third ^-"  —  rvQi'ffO-tvijs  a  spondee  and  an  iambus. 

Fourth  — —  —  • >- '  lolfiijTrjad  a  spondee  and  a  trochee. 

Proceleusmaticus  ^  •— '  ^  <— '  nofe/Alos  two  pyrrichs. 

Dispondeus  <rifr£b6&V4rtl  two  spondees. 

Diiambus  ^-"  —  ^  —  tTilGidrffi  two  iambi. 

Ditrochaeus  —  •«— '  —  ^  dufftvxfjpd  two  trochee^. 


§191.  OF  METRE. 

834.  —  Metre,  in  its  general  sense,  means  an  arrangement  of  syllables 
and  feet  in  verse,  according  to  certain  rules  ;  and  in  this  sense  applies, 
not  only  to  an  entire  verse,  but  to  a  part  of  a  verse,  or  to  any  number 
of  verses.  A.  metre,  in  a  specific  sense,  means  a  combination  of  two  feet 
(sometimes  called  a  syzygy),  and  sometimes  one  foot  only. 

835  —  Note.  The  distinction  between  rhythm  and  metre  -is  this:  — 
the  former  refers  to  the  time  only,  in  regard  to  which,  two  short  sylla- 
bles are  equivalent  to  one  long  ;  the  latter  refers  both  to  the  time  and 
the  order  of  the  syllables.  The  rhythm  of  an  anapa?st  and  dactyl  is  the 
same  ;  the  metre  different.  The  term  rhythm,  however,  is  also  under- 
stood in  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  and  is  applied  to  the  harmonious 
construction  and  enunciation  of  feet  and  words  in  connection  ;  thus,  a 
line  has  rhythm  when  it  contains  any  number  of  metres  of  equal  time, 
without  regard  to  their  order.  Metre  requires  a  certain  number  of 
metres,  and  these  arranged  in  a  certain  order.  Thus,  in  this  line, 
>r^4o/iT£,  ^wthY.al,  TO)  niv&toq  ao/tre  Mol<jou. 

there  is  both  rhythm,  as  it  contains  six  metres  of  equal  value  in  respect 
of  time  ;  and  metre,  as  these  metres  are  arranged  according  to  the  canon 
for  Hexameter  heroic  verse,  which  requires  a  dactyl  in  the  5th,  and  a 
spondee  in  the  6th  place.     Change  the  order  thus, 
,  Molffcii'  2  w.ikwcu,  to) 


and  the  rhythm  remains  as  perfect  as  before,  but  the  metre  is  de- 
stroyed ;  it  is  no  longer  a  Hexameter  heroic  line. 


§  192.  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  METRE. 

836 — 1.  Metre,  in  the  general  sense,  is  divided  into  nine  species: 

1.  Iambic.  4.  Dactylic.  7.  Ionic  a  inajore. 

2.  Trochaic.  5.  Choriambic.         8.  Ionic  a  minore. 

3.  Anapsestic.         6.  Antispastic.         9.  Paeonic  or  Cretic. 


308  PROSODY.  §  192. 

These  names  are  derived  .from  the  feet  which  prevail  in  them. 
Each  species  was  originally  composed  of  those  feet  only,  from  which  it 
is  named ;  but  others,  equal  in  time,  were  afterwards  admitted  under 
certain  restrictions. 

It  often  happens  that  two  species,  totally  dissimilar,  are  united  in  the 
same  verse,  which  is  then  termed  Asi/nartetes.  When  the  irregularity 
is  great,  and  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  any  regular  form,  it  is  called  Poly- 
schematistic  or  anomalous. 

837. — Note.  The  invention  or  frequent  use  of  any  species  of  metre 
by  a  particular  poet,  or  its  being  used  in  some  particular  civil  or  reli- 
gious ceremony,  or  appropriated  to  some  particular  subject  or  sentiment, 
has  been  the  occasion  of  certain  kinds  of  verse  receiving  other  names 
than  those  specified  above.  Thus,  we  have  the  Asclepiadean,  Grlyco- 
nian,  Alcaic,  Sapphic,  and  others ;  named  from  the  poets',  Asclcpiades, 
Glycon,  Alcceus,  Sappho,  Phalcecus,  Sotades,  Archilochus,  Alcman, 
Pherecrates,  Anacreon,  Aristophanes,  <fec.  So  also  the  Prosodiacus 
(from  Trooaodoq),  so  called  from  being  used  in  the  approach  to  the  altars 
on  solemn  festivals  ;  and  the  Paroemiacus,  a  kind  of  verse  much~used  in 
the  writing  of  proverbs  (Ttaqo^laC). 

838 — In  the  iambic,  trochaic,  and  anapaestic  verse,  a  metre  con 
sists  of  two  feet ;  in  the  others,  of  one  only. 

839 — 2.  A  verse  or  metre  is  farther  characterized  by  the  number 
of  metres  (in  the  specific  meaning  of  the  term)  which  it  contains,  as 
follows : 

A  verse  containing  one  Metre  is  called  Manometer. 
two  Metres  Dimeter. 

three  Metres  Trimeter 

four  Metres  Tetrameter. 

five  Metres  Pentameter. 

six  Metres  Hexameter. 

seven  Metres  Heptameter. 

840 — 3.  A  verse  may  be  complete,  having  precisely  the  number 
of  metres  which  the  canon  requires ;  or  it  may  be  deficient  in  the  last 
metre ;  or  it  may  be  redundant.  To  express  this,  a  verse  is  further 
characterized  as  follows :  viz. 

1.  AOATALECTIO,  when  complete. 

2     (  CATALECTIC,  if  wanting  one  syllable. 

(  BRACHYCATALECTIO,  if  wanting  two  syllables  or  one  whole  foot. 
3.  HYPERCATALECTIC,  when  there  is  one  or  two  syllables  at  the  end, 
more  than  the  verse  requires ;  thus, 

yr\  fadw  daanovicu;  wq.    JEsch.  Lept/Theb. 

is  denominated  "  TROCHAIC  DIMETER  CATALECTIC  ;"  the  first  term  referring 
to  the  species,  the  second  to  the  number  of  metres,  and  the  third  to  the 
apothesis  or  ending. 

841. — Note.  The  two  last  terms,  viz.  that  designating  the  number 
of  metres,  and  that  which  refers  to  the  ending,  are  sometimes  reduced 
to  one ;  thus,  when  a  verse  of  a  given  species  consists  of  two  feet  and 
a  half,  it  is  called  PAithemimcr  ;  of  three  and  a  half,  Hephthemimer  (five 
half  feet,  seven  half  feet) ;  and  when  it  consists  of  one  metre  and  a 
halfj  it  is  called  Hemiholius. 


§  193, 194, 195.  PROSODY.  309 

842. — The  respective  situation  of  each  foot  in  a  verse  is  called  its 
place  (sedes). 

The  rules  or  canons  of  the  different  kinds  of  metre  are  briefly  as 
follows. 


§  193.  I.  IAMBIC  METRE.     SCHEME,  §  204, 1. 

843 — A  pure  iambic  verse  consists  only  of  iambuses. 

A  mixed  iambic  verse  admits  in  the  first,  third,  and  fifth  place,  an 
iambus  or  a  spondee. 

In  the  second,  fourth,  and  sixth,  an  iambus  only. 

Variation  1.  The  iambus  in  the  odd  places  may  be  resolved  into  a 
tribrach ;  the  spondee,  into  a  dactyl  or  an  anapaest. 

Variation  2.  The  iambus  in  the  even  places  '(except  the  last),  may 
be  resolved  into  a  tribrach.  An  anapaest  is  substituted  for  it  in  the 
case  of  a  proper  name  only. 

Observe,  however,  1st.  that  a  dactyl  should  be  avoided  in  the  fifth 
place ;  and,  2d.  that  resolved  feet  should  not  concur. 

Of  this  verse  there  are  all  varieties  of  length,  monometers,  dimeters, 
trimeters  (called  also  senarian,  each  line  having  six  feet),  and  tetra- 
meters. 


§194.  II.  TROCHAIC  METRE.     SCHEME,  §204,  H. 

844. — A  pure  trochaic  verse  consists  of  trochees  only. 

A  mixed  trochaic  verse  admits  in  the  odd  places,  a  trochee  only ;  in 
the  even  places,  a  trochee  or  a  spondee. 

The  trochee  may,  in  any  place,  be  resolved  into  a  tribrach,  and  the 
spondee  into  a  dactyl  or  anapczst. 

A  dactyl,  in  the  odd  places,  occurs  only  in  the  case  of  a  proper  name. 

Trochaic  verses  are  mostly  catalectic.  A  system  of  them  generally 
consists  of  catalectic  tetrameters;  sometimes  of  dimeters,  catalectic  and 
acatalectic  intermixed. 

In  tetrameters,  the  second  metre  should  always  end  a  word. 


§  195.  III.   ANAPAESTIC  METRE.     SCHEME,  §  204,  III. 

845. — An  anapaestic  verse,  without  any  restriction  of  places,  admits 
either  an  anapcest,  spondee,  or  dactyl. 

Exc.  1.  The  dimeter  catalectic,  called  paraemiacus,  requires-  an  ana- 
psest in  the  last  place  but  one ;  and  is  incorrect  when  a  spondee  is  found 
there. 

Exc.  2.  In  some  instances  the  proper  foot  is  resolved  into  the  proce- 
leusmatic. 

Anapaestic  verses  are  sometimes  intermixed  with  other  species,  but 
are  oftener  in  a  detached  system  by  themselves. 

846 — A  system  is  chiefly  composed  of  dimeters  under  the  following 
circumstances : 

1.  When  each  foot,  pr  at  least  each  metre  (syzygy),  ends  a  word. 


310  PROSODY.  §  196, 197. 

2.  TVTien  the  last  verse  but  one  of  the  system  is  monometer  acata- 
lectic,  and  the  last,  dimeter  catalectic,  with  an  anapaest  in  the  second 
metre.  . 

In  a  systenvthis  peculiar  property  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  last 
syllable  of  e.ich  verse  is  not  common  (as  in  other  species),  but  has  its 
quantity  subject  to  the  same  restrictions  as  if  the  foot  to  which  it  be- 
longs occurred  in  any  other  place  of  the  verse. 

847. — A  series,  therefore,  of  anapaestic  verses,  consisting  of  one  or 
more  sentences,  is  to  be  constructed  as  if  each  sentence  was  only  a  single 
verse. 

848 — Note.  The  monometer  acatalectic  is  called  an  anapaestic  base. 
This  is  sometimes  dispensed  with  in  a  system ;  in  the  parcemiacus,  rarely 

849 — To  this  metre  belong  the  Aristophanic,  being  catalectic  tetra 
meters ;  and  the  proceleusmatic,  consisting  of  feet  isochronal  to  an  ana 
psest,  and,  for  the  most  part,  ending  with  it. 


§196.  IV.  DACTYLIC  METRE.     SCHEME,  §204,  IV. 

850 — A  DACTYLIC  verse  is  composed  solely  of  'dactyls  and  spondees. 
In  this  species  one  foot  constitutes  a  metre. 

The  common  heroic  is  hexameter  acatalectic,  having  a  dactyl  in  the 
fifth  place  and  a  spondee  in  the  sixth. 

Sometimes  in  a  solemn,  majestic,  *or  mournful  description,  a  spondee 
takes  the  place  of  the  dactyl  in  the  fifth  foot;  from  which  circumstance 
such  lines  are  called  spondaic. 

85 1 . — The  ELEGIAC  PENTAMETER  consists  of  five  feet.  The  first  and 
second  may  be  either  a  dactyl  or  a  spondee  at  pleasure ;  the  third  must 
always  be  a  spondee ;  the  fourth  and  fifth  anapaests. 

852. — Though  a  heroic  verse  is  confined  to  a  smaller  number  of  ad- 
missible feet  than  an  iambic  verse,  several  licenses  are  allowed  which 
are  not  used  in  the  latter. 

The  most  considerable  of  these  are : 

1.  The  lengthening  of  a  short  final  syllable  in  certain  cases,  viz.  at 
the  csesural  pause,  and  where  its  emphasis  is  increased  by  its  beginning 
a  foot. 

2.  The  hiatus,  or  the  concurrence  of  two  vowels,  in  contiguous  words. 
853. — That   irregular  sort   of  dactylics   which   Hephaestion   calls 

Colics,  admits,  in  the  first  metre,  any  foot  of  two  syllables ;  the  rest 
must  be  all  dactyls,  except  where  the  verse  is  catalectic,  and  then  the 
catalectic  part  must  be  part  of  a  dactyl. 

854. — A  second  sort  of  dactylics,  called  by  the  same  author  Logace- 
dics,  requires  a  trochaic  syzygy  at  the  end,  all  the  other  feet  being  dactyls. 


§  197.  V.  CHORIAMBIC  METBE.     SCHEME,  §  204,  V. 

855. — The  construction  of  an  ordinary  choriambic  verse  is  very 
simple.  Each  metre,  except  the  last,  is  a  choriambus,  and  the  last  may 
be  an  iambic  syzygy,  entire  or  cutalectic. 

856. — The  iambic  syzygy  (two  iambic  feet)  is  sometimes  found  at 


§  198, 199.  PROSODY.  311 

the  beginning,  and,  in  long  verses,  in  other  places ;  but  this  happens 
less  frequently. 

857 — If  any  other  foot  of  four  syllables  is  joined  with  a  choriambus, 
the  verse  is  then  more  properly  called  epichoriambic.  Of  this  there  is 
a  very  great  variety,  and  they  sometimes  end  with  an  amphibrach, 
sometimes  with  a  bacJiius. 


§198.  VI.  ANTISPASTIC  METKE.     SCHEME,  §  204,  VI. 

858. — An  antispastic  verse,  in  its  most  usual  and  correct  form,  is 
constructed  as  follows : 

In  the  first  place,  beside  the  proper  foot,  is  admitted  any  foot  of  four 
syllables  ending  like  an  antispastus  in  the  last  two  syllables ;  i.  e.  either 
v_^ ^ ^,  ^  ^  —  x_>}  or  —  ^  —  ^— '. 

In  the  intermediate  places,  only  an  antispastus. 

In  the  last,  an  iambic  syzygy,  complete  or  catalectic,  or  an  incom- 
plete antispastus. 

There  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  varieties  in  this  species. 

859. — The  following  are  the  must  usual : 

1.  In  short  verses,  the  proper  foot  frequently  vanishes,  and  the  verse 
consists  of  one  of  the  above-mentioned  feet  and  an  iambic  syzygy. 

2.  All  the  epitrites,  except  the  second,  are  occasionally  substituted 
in  the  several  places  in  the  verse,  particularly  the  fourth  epitrite  in  the 
second. 

3.  If  an  antispastus  begins  the  verse,  and  three  syllables  remain, 
whatever  those  syllables  are,  the* verse  is  antispastic;  because  they 
may  be  considered  as  a  portion  of  some  of  the  admissible  feet,  or  of 
some  of  them  resolved. 

4.  In  long  verses,  an  iambic  syzygy  sometimes  occurs  in  the  second 
place,  and  then  the  third  place  admits  the  same  varieties  as  the  first. 

An  antispastus,  with  an  additional  syllable,  is  called  Dochmiac. 
An  antispastus,  followed  by  an  iambic  syzygy,  is  called  Glyconian. 
Two  antispasti,  with  an  iambic  syzygy,  is  called  Asclepiadean. 
Antispastic  dimeter  catalectic,  is  called  Pherecratian. 


§  199.  VH.  IONIC  METRE  A  MAJORE.   SCHEME,  §  204,  VII. 

860. — An  Ionic  verse  admits  a  trochaic  syzygy  promiscuously  with 
its  proper  foot.  The  verse  never  ends  with  the  proper  foot  complete, 
but  either  with  the  trochaic  syzygy  or  the  proper  foot  incomplete.  The 
varieties  of  this  metre  are  numerous,  among  which  observe  the  follow 
ing: 

Var.  1.  The  second  pceon  is  sometimes  found  in  ihe  first  place. 

Var.  2.  A  molossus  ( )  in  an  even  intermediate  place,  with  a 

trochaic  syzygy  following. 

Var.  3.  The  second  pceon  is  occasionally  joined  to  a  second  or  third 
epitrite,  so  that  the  two  feet  together  are  equal  in  time  to  Iwo  Ionic 
feet.  This  is  called  an  l4wexAaox'  ;  the  defect  in  time  of  the  preceding 
foot  being,  in  this  case,  supplied  by  the  redundant  time  of  the  subse- 
quent ;  and  the  verse  so  disposed  is  called  " 


312  PROSODY.  §  200,  201,  202. 

Far.  4.  Resolutions  of  the  long  syllable  into  two  short  ones,  are 
allowed  in  all  possible  varieties. 

861.  —  If  the  three  remaining  paeons,  or  the  second  paeon  in  any  place 
but  the  first,  without  an  L4vaxAoKTtg  :  or, 

If  an  iambic  syzygy  or  third  epitrite  —  a  choriambus,  or  any  of  the 
discordant  feet  of  .four  syllables,  be  found  in  the  same  verse  with  an 
Ionic  foot,  the  jerse  is  then  termed  Epi^onic. 
i  _  __ 

§  200.  VIII.    IONIC  METRE  A  MINORE.     SCHEME,  §  204, 

VIII. 

862.  —  An  Ionic  verse  a  minore  is  often  entirely  composed  of  its  own 
proper  feet.     It  admits,  however,  an  iambic  syzygy  promiscuously,  and 
begins  sometimes  with  the  third  pceon  followed  by  one  of  the  epitrites 
for  an  *j4va*lourt(;: 

863.  —  A  molossus  sometimes  occurs  in  the  beginning  of  the  verse, 
and  also  in  the  odd  places,  with  an  iambic  syzygy  preceding. 

864.  —  In  the  intermediate  places  a  second  or  third  paeon  is  prefixed 
to  a  second  epitrite  ;  and  this  construction  is  called  '^bcutfaffui  as  before. 

Resolutions  of  the  long  syllables  are  allowed  in  this,  as  in  the  other 
Ionic  metre. 


An  Epionic  verse  a  minore  is  constructed  by  intermixing  with 
the  Ionic  foot  a  double  trochee,  second  epitrite,  or  paeon  without  an  'j4vd- 


PROSODIAC    VERSE. 

866.  —  "When  a  choriambus  precedes  or  follows  an  Ionic  foot  of  either 
kind,  the  name  Epionic  is  suppressed,  and  the  verse  called  Prosodiacus. 
And,  in  general, 

This  name  is  applied  to  a  verse  consisting  of  an  alternate  mixture 
of  choriambic  and  Ionic  feet,  or  of  their  respective  representatives. 

1ST.  B.  The  two  species  of  Ionic  are  not  to  be  intermixed  in  the  same 
verse. 

§201.  IX.  PJEONIC  METRE.    'SCHEME,  §  204,  IX. 

867.  —  A  paeonic  verse  requires  all  the  admissible  feet  to  have  the 
Bame  rhythm  with  its  proper  foot  ;  i.  e.  to  consist  of  five  times,  or  be 
equal  to  five  short  syllables.  « 

The  first  and  fourth  paeons  are  mostly  used,  but  not  in  the  same  verse. 

The  construction  of  this  verse  is  most  perfect  when  each  metre  ends 
with  the  several  words  of  the  verse,  as  was  before  remarked  of  the  ana- 
pceBtic  metre. 

To  this  head  may  be  referred  those  verses  which  are  called  by  some 
authors  Bacchiac  and  Cretic  verses. 


§  202.  tHE  C^SURAL  PAUSE. 

868. — Besides  the  division  of  the  verse  into  metres  and  feet,  there 
is  another  division,  into  two  parts  only,  owing  to  the  natural  intermis- 


§203,204.  PROSODY.  313 

sion  of  the  voice  in  reading  it,  and  relevant  to  the  rhythmical  effect. 
This  is  called  the  PAUSE,  which  necessarily  ends  with  a  word ;  and  its 
distance  from  the  beginning  is  generally,  though  not  invariably,  deter- 
mined by  the  length  of  the  verse. 

869. — Heroic  verses  and  trimeter  iambics  are  esteemed  most  har- 
monious when  the  pause  falls  upon  the  first  syllable  of  the  third  foot. 
This  is  the  penthemimeral  caesura.  When  it  falls  upon  the  first  syllable 
of  the  fourth,  it  is  called  the  hephthemimeral.  In  iambic  and  trochaic 
tetrameters,  its  place  is  at  the  end  of  the  second  metre.  These  rules  are 
more  observed  by  the  Roman  than  by  the  Greek  poets.  In  anapzestic 
verse,  and  pseonic,  no  place  is  assigned  to  the  pause  ;  because,  since  the 
metres  (if  rightly  constructed)  end  with  a  word,  the  effect  of  a  pause 
will  be  produced  at  the  end  of  each  metre.  The  same  may  be  observed 
of  the  Ionic  a.  minore. 


§  203.  COMPOUND  METRES. 

870 — Besides  the  preceding  nine  species  of  metre,  the  compositions 
and  modifications  of  these  are  very  numerous.  Of  these,  observe  the 
following : 

1.  A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  inserted  between  the  parts  of  a  verse 
consisting  of  similar  metres. 

2.  In  some  species,  the  portions  of  an  admissible  foot  of  four  sylla- 
bles are  separated  by  the  intermediate  metres. 

3.  ft  happens  not  unfrequently  that  two  species,  totally  dissimilar, 
are  united  in  the  same  verse  ;  which  is  then  denominated  ASYNARTETES  ; 

1.  Dactylic  Tetram.  -j-  Troch.  Hemiholius. 

2.  Iambic  Penth.       -\-  Troch.  Hemiholius. 

3.  Dactylic  Dim.       -j-  Troch.  Mx>nom.  or  Logasedic. 

4.  Iambic  syzygy      -j-  Troch.  Syzygy,  and  vice  versa. 
This  last  is  called  PERIODICUS. 

4.  When  a  verse  is  so  irregular  as  to  contain  in  it  some  glaring  vio- 
lation of  the  preceding  rules,  it  is  called  POLYSCHEMATISTIC  or  anomalous  ; 
thus, 

871. — To  this  title  may  be  referred,  « 

1.  A  verse  otherwise  iambic,  having  a  spondee  in  the  second  or 
fourth  place. 

2.  An  iambus  in  a  trochaic  verse,  <fcc.  &c. 

These  rules  are  exemplified  in  the  following  tables. 


§  204.  METRICAL  TABLES. 

872 — The  following  .tables  exhibit  a  scheme  of  the  different  feet 
allowed  in  each  kind  of  metre,  and  the  place  which  they  occupy.  In 
the  tables  the  following  abbreviations  occur ;  viz.,  A.  C.  for  Acatalec- 
tic  ;  C.  for  Catalectic  ;  B.  C.  for  Brachycatalectic  ;  H.  C.  for  Hypercata- 
lectic ;  and  P.  N.  for  Proper  Name.  840.  In  Iambic,  Trochaic,  and 
Anapcestic  verse,  each  metre  consists  of  two  feet,  and  is  followed  by  a 
double  line. 


314 


PROSODY. 


§204 


873.— I.  IAMBIC  METRE.    §193. 
1.  Manometer  Base.  2.  Dimeter  Acatalectic. 


i       1. 


2. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

^  — 

^  — 

i  ^  ~~ 

^  — 



—  — 

8.  Trimeter  Acatalectic. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

s_x   >-' 
V^    V^    





>«/  >-x  

^  ^  — 

^  ^  — 

^  —  —  1 

^  ^  — 

P.  N 


874.— II.  TROCHAIC  METRE. 

Explanation  of  the  Scheme. 


.194. 


In  this  verse,  each  metre  is  alike.  If  from  the  trimeter  scheme 
exhibited  below,  the  first  and  the  second  metre*  be  taken  away,  the 
remainder  will  be  a  scheme  of  the  MONOMETER,  which  is  always  hyper- 
catalectic  or  acatalectic.  If  the  first  be  taken  away,  the  remainder 
will  be  a  scheme  of  the  dimeter  ;  and  if  a  metre  be  prefixed,  it  will  be  a 
scheme  of  the  tetrameter t  which  is  always  catalectic. 

Trimeter  Acatalectic. 


1. 

2.        i 

j         3. 

4 

5. 

6. 

• 







^  ^ 

^  ^ 
^  ^ 

I        ^^ 

1 

1             ^~f 

875.— III.  ANAPAESTIC  METRE. 
Explanation  of  the  Scheme. 


U95. 


This  scheme  is  dimeter.  The  removal  of  the  first  metre  leaves  it 
MONOMETER  (which  is  called  an  anapaestic  base)  ;  by  prefixing  one 
metre,  it  becomes  TRIMETER  ;  and  by  prefixing  two  it  becomes  TETRA- 
METER, which  is  always  catalectic.  A  catalectic  dimeter  is  also  called 
Parcemiac* 


( 204.  PROSODY.  315 

1.  Dimeter  Acatalectic.  2.  Parcemaic  or  Dim.  Cat. 


1. 

2. 

3r 

•  4. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

_           I 

•v-r'   N_^ 

~^  ~~^ 











876.— IV.  DACTYLIC  METRE.    §196. 
1.  Dimeter.  «,  2.  Trimeter. 


1. 

2. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

— 



A.C. 



_r^} 

A.  a 

,. 



H.  C. 





i 

H.  C. 

Adonic.  » 

Tetrameter. 


1.  2,  8.  4.       n 


4.  Pentameter. 


33) 


A.  C. 


ELEGIAC. 


6.  Hexameter. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

- 















--' 



pure, 
impure. 
HEKOIO. 


316 


PROSODY. 


§204. 


Logacedics. 

called  also  CHORIAMBIC  Dimeter  Catalectic. 

Alcaic  (the  most  common). 

II 
—  ^  —  v^  fLogasedics  only 


I. 

H. 

Trimeter. 
IU. 

1 

__~ 

S77.—V.  CHORIAMBIC  METRE.  "§197. 


M. 

Cat. 

pure  acatalectic  seldom  occurs 
impure  do.  in  which  also  other 
feet   are  intermixed,   as  the 
Paeons  and  Epitrites. 

MONOMETER  is  the  same  as  Dact.  Dim.     DIMETER  removes  the  first 
Metre.     TETRAMETER  prefixes  a  metre,  and  is  always  Catalectic. 

878.—  VI.  ANTISPASTIC  METRE.     §198. 

An  Antispastic  Metre.    . 
Iambus.      Trochee. 

In  the  varieties  of  this  verse,  any  of  the  simple 
-  ^  feet  under  the  Iambus  may  precede  any  of  those 
under  the  Trochee.     DIMETERS,  TRIMETERS,  and 
,  _  TETRAMETERS,  are  formed  as  directed  §  198,  and 
are  catalectic,  acatalectic,  and  hypercatalectic. 
The  Dochmiac  dimeter  and  trimeter  is  formed 
by  repeating  the  Dochmiac  monometer.     The 
Dochmiac  also  sometimes  precedes,  and  some 
'  s-/  times  follows,  the  Antispastus. 


pure- 


Antispastic  Varieties. 


Metres.     I. 


II. 


Cat.  is  called  Pherecratic. 

A.  C.  is  called  Glyconic. 

H.  C.  is  called  Sapphic. 

A.  C.  is  called  Glyconic  Polyschematistio 


§204. 


PROSODY. 


317 


879.-— VII.  IONIC  METRE,  A  MAJORE,  §199. 

Trimeter. 
Metres  I.  II.  III. 

-  -  -  -  1 Cat. 


pure^  — 


as  above. 


as  above  and 


A.  C. 


all  the  paeons. 
DIMETER  may  be  formed  by  joining  I.  and  III. 

VARIETIES    OF    THE    IONIC    A    MAJORE. 

^"^ZlZZ^^!-  —  ~  —  ^  ALCAIC. 


—  >_,  ^  V  PROSODIACUS. 
Ionic  a  majore  tetrameter  B.  C.  is  called  SOTADIC. 

880.— VIII.  IONIC  METRE,  A  MINORE,  §200. 

Dimeter.  Tetrameter. 

Metres  L  is  formed  by  joining  a  Dim.  Cat.  to 

C.         a  Dim.  A.  C.    A  Molossus  ( ) 

in  the  odd  places  must  always  be 
preceded  by  an  iambic  syzygy. 

The  Ionic  a  minore,  preceded  or  followed  by  a  choriambus,  is  an- 
other form  of  PROSODIACUS.     For  the  Epi -Ionic,  see  §  199. 

881.— IX.  PCEONIC  OR  CRETIC  METRE,  §201. 

A  Pceonic  metre.  DIMETER,  TRIMETER,  AND  TETRAMETER, 

—  ^  ^  ^      ^ are  formed  by  a  repetition  of  the  metre ;  a  reso- 

^      ^  ^  or  ~  ~~  ^    lution  of  —  into  ^  ^  is  common. 


§205.  SCANNING. 

882. — To  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  scanning  of  the  Latin 
poets,  the  ordinary  hexameter  and  regular  systems  of  the  Greek  poets 
will  present  no  difficulty.  After  a  little  exercise  in  these,  the  best 
praxis  is  furnished  by  the  Choruses  in  the  Dramatic  writers,  and  the 
odes  of  Pindar ;  as  almost  every  line  furnishes  a  different  kind  of  verse, 


318  ACCENTS.  §  206. 

and  the  student  is  compelled  to  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted 
both  with  the  rules  of  quantity  and  of  metre  in  order  to  discover  it. 

883. — In  scanning,  for  example,  the  Proodus  in  the  Medea  of  Euri- 
pides, beginning  at  the  131st  line,  after  ascertaining  the  quantity  of 
each  syllable,  and  comparing  the  whole  line  with  the  preceding  tables, 
they  will  be  as  follows  : 

131  Anapaestic         Dim.         Ac. 

132  Dactylic  Trim. 

133  Anapa3stic         Dim.  " 

134  Dactylic  Trim.        H.  C. 

135  Pseonic  Dim.         Ac. 

136  Antispastic          "  " 

137  Dactylic  «  pure. 

138  Antispastic  " 

884. — Proceeding  in  the  same  way  with  the  second  Olympic  ode  of 
Pindar,  it  will  be  as  follows : 

1.  Periodicus,  or  circulating  dimeter. 

2.  Ionic  Dimeter  Catalectic. 

3.  Pieonic  Dimeter  Hypercatalectic. 

4.  Choriambic  Dimeter  Catalectic. 

5.  Iambic  Dimeter  Brachycatalectic. 

6.  Dochmiac — and  so  on  of  the  others. 

885. — Note.  In  the  choruses  of  the  dramatic  writers,  and  the  odes 
of  Pindar,  each  line  of  the  antistrophe  is  the  same  kind  of  verse,  and 
often,  though  not  always,  the  order  of  syllables  is  the  same,  with  the 
corresponding  line  of  the  preceding  strophe. 


§  206.  ACCENTS. 

886 — In  the  proper  modulation  of  speech,  it  is  necessary  that  one 
syllable  in  every  word  should  be  distinguished  by  a  tone  or  elevation 
of  the  voice.  '  On  this  syllable,  the  accent  is  marked  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. The  elevation  of  voice  does  not  lengthen  the  time  of  the  sylla- 
ble ;  so  that  accent  and  quantity  are  considered  by  the  best  critics  as 
perfectly  distinct,  but  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  each  other.  These 
can  be  of  no  use  to  us  now,  as  far  as  regards  the  pronunciation  of  the 
language,  ^however  useful  in  this  respect  they  may  have  been  to  those 
by  whom  it  was  spoken.  Still,  however,  the  study  of  these  is  useful, 
as  they  serve  to  distinguish  between  words  which  are  spelled  alike,  but 
have  different  significations.  This  difference  was  doubtless  marked  in 
the  language  as  originally  spoken  by  a  different  intonation,  which,  by 
the  different  marks  called  accents,  it  was  intended  to  convey  to  the  eye. 
Thus,  in  English,  the  words  des'ert,  and  desert',  though  spelled  with 
the  same  letters,  differ  both  in  sound  and  meaning ;  and  this  is  marked 
by  the  accent.  So  in  Greek,  ofiox;  and  bftwq,  spelled  with  the  same  let- 
ters, differ  in  meaning ;  and  the  difference  of  the  accent  would  doubt- 
less lead  the  Greek  to  express  this  by  a  difference  of  tone  which  is  now 
lost.  Scapula  has  given  a  list  of  more  than  four  hundred  words  which 


§  206. 


ACCENTS.  319 


are  thus  distinguished.     The  accents  also  indicate,  in  many  cases,  the 
quantity  of  one  or  more  syllables  of  a  word. 

887  —  The  accents  in  form  are  three  :  the  acute  ('),  grave  ('  ),  and 
circumflex  ("  ).  Strictly  speaking,  however,  there  is  in  reality  but  one 
accent,  the  acute,  which  is  placed  over  a  vowel  to  mark  the  emphatic 
syllable.  When  the  accent  is  marked  on  a  diphthong,  it  is  placed  over 
the  subjunctive  vowel;  as, 


888.  —  The  accent  is  placed  over  one  of  lie  last  three  syllables 
only,  ^nd  words  are  denominated  accordingly, 


Oxytons,  when  accented  on  the  final  syllable  ;  as, 
Paroxytons,  when  accented  on  the  penult  ;  as, 
Proparoxytons,  when  accented  on  the  antepenult;    as,  av- 


889  —  The  two  last  are  called  barytons,  because  the  final  syllable 
is  not  accented,  for  every  syllable  not  accented  is  called  grave  (fiagvs)  ; 
but  the  grave  accent  is  never  marked,  as  such,  upon  a  syllable. 

890  —  In  the  structure  of  a  sentence,  when  any  oxyton  is  followed 
by  another  word  in  Continued  discourse,  the  grave  is  used  instead  of 
the  acute  ;  as,  &ebs  r^u)v  :  but  the  word  is  still  considered  an  oxyton. 

891  —  When  two  syllables,  the  first  of  which  is  accented,  are  con- 
tracted into  one,  the  circumflex  is  used  to  denote  that  an  acute  or  ac- 
cented syllable,  and  a  grave  or  unaccented,  are  united  ;  thus,  qpt/U'o;,  as 
if,  qpiJ.Ew,  <p&Aw  ;  <jp^.£Of-,Mt,  as  if  (pi),ioii*i,  yvkoifM,.     Hence,  if  there  be  no 
accent  on  the  first  of  the  syllables  to  be  contracted,  there  will  be  no 
circumflex  on  the  contraction  ;  thus,  qufaoi/uyv,  (pdoiiuTjv.     But  <w  con- 
tracted for  6a  in  the-  accusative  singular  of  nouns  in  oj  has  not  the 
circumflex. 

892.  —  It  is  evident,  also,  that  as  the  accent  must  be  upon  one 
of  the  last  three  syllables,  the  circumflex  must  be  upon  one  of  the 
last  two  ;  and  words  are  denominated  accordingly, 

Perispomenons,  when  the  last  syllable  is  cir  cum  flexed  ;  as, 

gtfAc5  for  cpdsG). 

Properispomenons,  when  the  penult  is  circumflexed  ;  as,  yikov- 
w  for 


893.  —  N.  B.  Of  many  words,  both  the  uncontracted  and  contracted 
forms  are  in  use  ;  but  of  others,  the  contracted  form  only  remains,  and 
we  must  conjecture  from  analogy  what  the  uncontracted  was;  as, 
eao/ov,  rjQ/ovj  %ov,  ovv.  This  reasoning  from  analogy,  however,  pro- 
ceeds on  the  assumption  that  all  syllables  having  the  circumflex,  were 
originally  two.  now  united  by  contraction.  Whether  this  was  so  or 
not,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  ascertained  ;  nor,  if  it  could,  would  the 
knowledge  be  of  much  value,  as  the  rules  for  the  accentuation  of  words 
would  still  continue  the  same. 


320  ACCENTS.  §  207. 


§  207.  PLACE  OF  THE  ACCENT  IN  THE  NOMINATIVE. 

894. — No  rule  can  be  given  for  ascertaining  the  proper  place 
of  the  accent  in  the  nominative  of  nouns  and  adjectives ;  this 
is  best  learned  from  practice,  and  the  use  of  a  good  Lexicon. 
The  following  observations,  however,  may  be  of  use  : 

1.  The  articles,  pronouns,  and  prepositions,  have  the  place  of 
the  accent  marked  in  their  inflexions  in  the  grammar. 

2.  In  verbs,  it  is  thrown  as  far  back  as  possible,  except  EIJU 
and  qp?7p. 

3.  The  following  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable,  and  are 
therefore  oxj/tons  ;  viz., 

1.  All  monosyllables  which  are  not  contracted;  as,  %£IQ,  oq.  When 
they  have  suffered  contraction,  they  take  the  circumflex ;  as,  yij, 
(/«*),  q>ojq  (cpdoq).  So  also  at,  vvv,  ouv,  vq,  S^vq3  pvq,  vavq,  ovq, 
naiz,  Tcv^j  most  or  all  of  which  are  contractions.  2.  All  nouns  in 
fvq',  as,  /jccoV'Af  vq.  3.  All  verbals  in  I^IQ\  as,  xctQctxtrjg.  4.  Ver- 
bals in  rtjq ;  as,  /na&yTtiq ;  but  those  from  verbs  in  pi,  on  the 
penult;  as,  g-iryq.  5.  Verbals  in  ^  and  juoq  (from  the  perfect 
passive);  as  yqa/i/iij,  ffiraffjiioq.  6.  Verbals  in  TO?,  from  the  3d 
singular  perfect  passive ;  as,  yro^roq ;  except  some  compounds ;  as, 
d7todfi>xt6q.  7.  Verbals  in  77  and  a  from  the  2  perf.  active;  as, 
(pro/I?/,  diayogd.  8.  Diminutives,  patronymics,  and  other  deriva- 
tive nouns  in  KJ;  as,  xf^a/uiq,  /Startup  9.  Compounds  of  TT 
ciyo),  qi£Q(t)}  ovQoq,  tyyov',  as,  7icuda'yo)'y6q,  diaqiOQa,  7Tvkov 
fiotQ'yoq  (but  Ttagfi,  and  Tttgl  throw  back  the  accent ;  as, 
10.  Adjectives  in  yq  not  contracted;  as,  aty&rjq.  _  11.  Compound 
adjectives  in  T^C;;  as,  tvfpvrjq',  except  compounds  of  y&oq  and  agxiw  ; 
as,  xctxo//^?,  7iodd()y.i]q.  12.  Adjectives  in  vq,  ua,  v  '-,  as,  9$vs, 
ydfia,,  fi$v.  13.  Adjectives  in  ^otj;  as,  ala/Qoq.  14.  Adjectives  in 
Moq,  from  verbals  in  roq ;  as,  Tro^ti'Koq  from  ftoufroq.  15.  The 
adverbial  terminations  t  and  dov;  as,  dd-ttlt  oft4)&Vfia#QV. 

895. — Accent  on  the  Penult. 

4.  The  following  have  the  accent  on  the  penult ;  viz., 

1.  Diminutives  in  KT/O?,  *Aog,  I>MV  ;  as,  vtaviffxoq,  7tat,diffx?i,  vavtiXoq, 
fioyoloyv.  2.  Kouns  in  ti,ov,  denoting  a  place ;  as,  Avxtfov,  <fec. 
3.  Nouns  in  vvij ;  as,  ^xccrtxruwy.  4.  Nouns  in  *o»  if  derived  from 
adjectives  in  og;  as,  g>i,Ma.  If  derived  from  substantives,  the 
accent  varies ;  as,  aryand  from  ffrgaroq.  5.  Nouns  in  ;ta  derived 
from  verbs  in  tvo) ;  as,  fia&ffala  from  paffrf.tvo).  6.  Almost  all 
nouns  denoting  national  relation ;  as,  rPo)/uaioq.  7.  Verbals  in 
IWQ;  as,  (>T/T«(>,  xTqro)Q.  8.  Adjectives  in  ti,q  tcaa  w,  as,  %a- 
gluq.  9.  Adjectives  in  orfqq ;  as7  h&wfyq.  10.  Verbal  adjectives 
info?;  as,  y^aTtiioq.  11.  Comparatives  in  *wr ;  as,  /?f  faiwv.  12. 
Adverbs  of  quantity  in  axm  ;  as,  vQuraxu;,  TtoMdxfq.  13.  Adverbs 
in  <y^r;  as, 


§  208, 209.  ACCENTS.  321 

896. — Composition. 

5.  Compound  words  in  many  instances,  especially  in  adverbs, 
retain  the  accent  on  the  syllable  where  it  stood  in  the  simple  ; 
as,  avToyc,  ovQavo&ev.  In  the  following  cases,  however,  the  ac- 
cent is  drawn  back  to  the  antepenult ;  viz., 

1.  Words  compounded  of  particles,  a,  ev,  dvg,  di,  opo,'  agri, 
avri,  TtsQt',  TiaQa,  VTZO,  &c. ;  as,  artiGTog  from  rtiavog,  dtyv%og 
from  tyvx/j. 

2.  Words  compounded  of  two  adjectives ;  as,  cpdoaoyog  :  of 
two  substantives  ;  as,  vavx^Qog  :  of  adjectives  and  substantives  ; 
as,  ' 


§  208.    GENERAL  RULES. 

897.  —  I.  If  the  final  syllable  is  long,  the  accent  on  the  penult 
is  the  acute  ;  thus,  dv&Qcoaov,  dovca  (dual),  ocpecog, 


Obs.  The  Attic  terminations  cow  and  ecog,  in  the  second  and 
third  declensions,  and  the  Ionic  eco  in  the  first,  are  consideicd  as 
forming  one  syllable  ;  as,  dvcoyeav,  nokewg. 

898.—  II.  If  the  final  syllable  be  short,  then 

1.  In  dissyllables  ,  the  accent  on  the  penult,  if  short,  is  the 
acute  ;  as,  IVTZTS  ;  if  long,  with  the  final  syllable  short,  the  accent 
is  the  circumflex  ;  as,  ^tjoa,  dovaa  (sing.). 

2.  In  polysyllables,  the  accent  on  the  antepenult  is  the  acute  ; 
thus,  tiv&QWTiog,  av&Qconoi,  vvTitopev,  Tvaropai. 

Obs.  1.  The  diphthongs  01  and  ai  final,  and  syllables  long  by 
position  only,  are  considered  short  in  accentuation  ;  thus,  avka%, 
avkaxog. 

Obs.  2.  These  rules  apply  to  the  inflections  of  nouns,  and  t(? 
all  the  parts  of  verbs  except  as  in  the  following  — 


§  209.  SPECIAL  RULES. 

899. 1.    IN    THE    DECLENSION    OF    NOUNS. 

1.  The  frst  declension  has  the  circumflex  on  the  ultimate  01 
the  genitive  plural ;  thusr^ov(Tco^,  from  povaa. 

Exc.    The  feminine  of  baryton  adjectives  in  og  follows  the 
first  general  rule ;  ay  low  from  ayiog  (not  ixyiav)  ;  <*evG)v  from 
also,  %Qt]GTG)r,  foovvcw,  st^ 
14* 


322  ACCENTS.  §  209. 

2.  Oxytons  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  circumflect  the 
last  syllable  in  the  genitive  and  dative  ;  thus,  wpj,  ttpjg,  n^y, 
ripfjv,  iiptov  ;  xaP.oc,  xoc^ov  ;  xa'koi,  xakoig. 

3.  In  the  third  declension,  the  acute  accent  on  the  last  sylla- 
ble of  the  nominative  is  transferred  to  the  penult  in  the  oblique 
cases  ;  thus,  GCOTIJQ,  Gcorqgog,  GCOT/JQCM  (Hide  I.)  ;  narr^Q,  nwit- 
QO$  ;  TQidg,  TQidfiog. 

Exc.  1.  The  final  syllable  of  vocatives  in  sv  and  01  change  the 
acute  into  the  circumflex  ;  as,  fiaoilevg,  fiaGifav  ;  xhco&co,  xkco&ol. 

Exc.  2.  MfoijQ  and  fivyKT^Q,  though  barytons,  accent  the  pe- 
nult ;  as,  nqr/Qbg. 

Exc.  3.  Genitives  and  datives  of  two  syllables,  have  the  cir- 
cumflex on  the  final  syllable  long,  and  the  acute  on  the  final  syl- 
lable short  ;  as,  [iqvog,  wqvi,  {i^volv,  pqvav,  tfqffb  dvwv,  dvGi.  But 
rig  and  participles  follow  the  general  rule  ;  as,  vwcov,  ftwrog, 
oval  ;  also,  tiddav,  dpcocov,  ^coco^,  XQ&rtov,  n  aid  cor,  T^coca^,  ov- 
vcov,  (par  cor  (of  lights),  ftdvTcov,  Ttatii. 

Also  syncopated  nouns  and  ywt],  except  the  dative  plural  ; 
as,  Tiargog,  narQwr,  aavQcoo-i  ;  yvvawog. 

Al§o,  a  short  vowel  of  the  genitive  from  a  long  vowel  in  the 
nominative,  throws  back  the  accent  in  the  vocative  ;  thus,  avfjQ, 
dvtQog,  avsQ  ;  evdaipcov,  evdaipovog,  evftcuftop.  Except  when 
the  penult  is  long  not  by  position  ;  as,  Ma%dov,  ' 


900.  —  ii.  IN  VERBS. 

1.  Monosyllables,  being  long,  are  circumflected;  as,  ca,  eig, 
<prjg,  ffi  for  ffa 

2.  A  long  syllable  after  the  characteristic  is  circumflected, 
1st.  In  the  active  and  middle  voices,  both  in  the  future  of  liquid 

verbs  ;  and  in  the  Attic   future  of  all*  verbs. 
2d.  In  the  passive  voice,  in  the  subjunctive  of  the  aorists,  and  in 
the  subjunctive  of  the  present  of  verbs  in  fii  ;  thus,  GTTSQCO, 

GTTSQSig,  GTtSQEW,  G7t£QCOV,  GTTSQOVpai  -  IVTtCQ,  WTtOVpSV,  TVTt- 

ol^i,  rvTZovpai  —  rvcp&w  —  rvmjg  —  rifta  —  n&topai. 
Exc.    Except  when  the  last  syllable  ends  in  rp  ;  as,  rvTtroitriv 
(see  1st  General  Rule). 

3.  The  third  person  of  the  optative  in  01  and  ai  has  the  acute 
accent  on  the  penult  ;  as,  rm'qpot,  aQSGcu. 

Except  in  the  futures  mentioned  in  rule  2d. 

4.  The  imperatives  l^fte,  eiTte,  EVQS,  ids,  hafis,  have  the  acute 
accent  on  the  final  salable. 

But  the  imperative  circumflects  the  last  syllable  in  the  second 


. 

§  210, 211.  ACCENTS.  323 

person  singular  in  the  second  aorist  middle  ;  thus,  rvrtov.     Ex- 
cept ywov,  TQaaov,  Ivfyxov. 

5.  The  infinitive  of  the  second  aorist  active  circumflects  the 
final  syllable  ;  thus,  rvnew,  viz.  as  if  contracted  from  Wfispenxtt 

TWltylSV,  tVTTSeV,  VV7ISAV. 

The  infinitive  of  the  first  aorist  active — of  the  second  aorist 
middle — of  both  aorists  passive — of  all  the  perfects — and  of  the 
active  voice  of  verbs  in  pi,  has  the  accent  on  the  penult ;  viz., 
the  circumflex  on  the  long  penult,  and  the  acute  on  the  short ; 
thus,  %Qivat,  l^dcou,  dxovcai — ivn&G&ai — tvy&jjvcu,  Tvmjvcu — 
tervywai,  TSTVTZWCU,  rervcp&ai,,  Ti^i^t^ai — iatdvcu. 

6.  The  participles  of  the  second  aorist  active,  and  of  the  pres- 
ent active  of  verbs  in  [u,  and  all  ending  in  cog  or  et$,  have  the 
acute  accent  on  the  final  syllable  ;  thus,  vvifcor,  ioidg,  didovg, 
vervcpag,  rwpfafa. 

The  participles  of  the  perfect  passive  have  the  acute  accent 
on  the  penult ;  as,  tsvvppwog. 

Except  when  abbreviated ;  as,  $smevog  for  Sedeypwog. 

7.  Eifu,  I  am,  and  <jp>/f«,  /  say,  have  the  acute  accent  on  the 
final  syllable  of  the  indicative  (except  the  second  singular) ;  thus, 
sari,  <)paoY. 

Obs.  When  l&rl  is  emphatical,  or  forms  the  copula  between 
the* subject  and  its  predicate,  it  throws  back  the  accent ;  thus, 
iiv&Qwnog  am  £oaor,  man  is  an  animal ;  lim  civ&QcoTiog, — ri 
d3  sen;  This  is  commogly,  though  improperly,  classed  under 
enclitics. 

§210.  IN  .CONSTRUCTION. 

901. — Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when  that  is  lost 
by  apostrophe,  throw  the  accent  back  ;  as,  dewa — Sew  say. 

JExc.  1.  JftAa  and  the  prepositions  are  excepted,  which  lose 
their  accent. 

Exc.  2.  Prepositions  placed  after  their  cases  (dvd  and  did  ex- 
cepted), throw  back  the  accent ;  thus,  TZSQI — if)v%tjg 


§211.   PROCLITICS  OR  ATONICS. 

902. — The  following  ten  words,  when  written  by  themselves  or  be- 
fore another  word,  have  no  accent,  but  seem  to  rest  upon  and  form,  as 
it  were,  part  of  the  word  following ;  viz.  the  articles  6,  %,  oi,  at ;  the 
prepositions  iv,  d<;  (It;),  ex.  e£  ;  the  conjunctions  *  I,  we, ;  and  the  nega- 
tive adverb  ou  (ovx,  oi>/). 


324  ACCENTS.  §  212. 

But  these  words  have  the  accent  when  it  is  thrown  back  upon  them 
from  an  enclitic  following ;  as,  tlye ;  in  the  end  of  a  sentence ;  as,  TIOK; 
yaQ  ov,  why  not  ?  after  the  word  on  which  they  rest;  as,  #*6?  w<?,  like 
a  f/od;  xaxwv  2$,  in  consequence  of  evils.  Also  the  article,  used  as  a 
personal  pronoun,  often  has  the  accent ;  as,  o  yct£  |A#* . 


§212.  ENCLITICS. 

903. — ENCLITICS  (from  eyxUvo))  are  so  denominated,  because,  like  the 
Latin  que,  they  lean  or  rest  their  accent  upon  the  preceding  word  as 
forming  a  part  of  it,  and  have  no  emphasis  on  themselves.  They  are, 

1.  Mov,  fitv,  fioi,  pi, — ffov,  Gtv,  Gol,  Ge,—ov,  01,  e, — julv,  viv,  Gyiv, — 
Gq>o)i,  Gq>&,  Gq>ia^,  GyiGi,  Ggtiwv,  and  the  indefinite  tit;,  in  all  cases  and 
dialects. 

2.  Elpi  and  vqpi  in  the  indicative  present,  except  in  the  second  per 
son  singular. 

3.  J'lij,  no v,  TIM,  Ttujq,  Tto&iv,  7ioT£,  not  interrogative 

4.  n,  T&,  x&,  xiv,  vvv,  rci^,  ^a,  roi. 

904. — RULES. 

I.  Enclitics  throw  back  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable  of  the  pre- 
ceding word  when  its  antepenult  has  the  acute  accent,  or  its  penult, 
the  circumflex ;  as,  &v&QW7t6<;  ZGTI, — ty.&i  jno^}  Gtojud  /AOV,  ov  ti. 

Note  1.  In  this  case  the  acute  accent  is  always  used,  though  the 
enclitic  may  have  a  circumflex. 

Note  2.  When  the  preceding  word  ends  in  a  double  consonant,*and 
will  not  easily  coalesce  with  the  enclitic  following,  the  accent  remains 
unchanged ;  as,  6fiijh£  fiov. 

II.  Monosyllabic  enclitics  lose  their  accent  when  the  preceding  word 
has  any  accent  on  the  final  syllable,  or  the  acute  on  the  penult ;  as, 
aya7ioi(;  /ut,  avijf)  Tiq,  tvTtro)  Gt. 

Dissyllabic  enclitics  lose  their  accent  when  the  preceding  word  has 
an  acute,  or  a  circumflex  (in  this  instance  regarded  as  an  acute)  on  the 
final  syllable  ;  as,  y.akoq  larw,  xalov  TWOS,  for  xocAo?  IGTIV,  xakov 
But  they  retain  their  accent  when  the  penult  has  the  acute  ;  as, 
twos,  A6yo$  tGilv. 

Obs.  The  principle  of  these  rules  is,  that  two  successive  syllables  in 
the  same  word  cannot  be  accented,  and  that  a  circumflected  syllable  is 
equivalent  to  one  acuted  followed  by  another  unaccented. 

III.  If  several  enclitics  follow  each  other,  the  last  only  is  without 
the  accent,  the  accent  of  each  being  thrown  back  on  the  word  which 
precedes  it ;  as,  tl — *lf  rii;  tlva  q>aGi  fiot>. 

IV.  The  enclitic  pronouns  retain  their  accent  after  prepositions,  and 
after  IWxa  and  77 ;  as,  &ct  GB. 

V.  All  the  enclitics  retain  their  accent  when  they  are  emphatic,  and 
when  they  begin  a  clause. 

VI.  'Effri  accents  its  first  syllable  when  it  begins  a  sentence  or  is  em- 
phatical,  or  follows  aJ.fi,  d,  ovx,  o)q,  or  TOUT  ;  as,  oux  IVm. 


FINIS. 


..  > 


VM**  1 

• »  fc  • 


NEW  AST)  EtfPKOVED 


NATIONAL  SCHOOL  BOOKS, 


PUBLISHED   BY 


FARMER,  BRACE  &  CO., 

No.  4  COUETLANDT-STREET,  N.  Y. 


P.,  "W.  &  Co.  would  respectfully  call  the  attention  of  all  intcreetod  m 
the  subject  of  education  to  the  following  works  published  by  them,  aa 
text-books,  in  nearly  every  branch  of  study ;  all  of  which  are  prepared 
by  practical  teachers  of  high  reputation,  and  many  of  them  are  in  use  in 
almost  every  State  of  the  Union.  They  have  stood  the  test  of  the  school- 
room, and  received  the  ianction  and  approval  of  many  of  the  best 
educators  in  the  country  from  whom  numerous  testimonials  and  recom- 
mendations are  in  our  possession. 


8TTLIIONS'    SERIES   OF   GRAMMARS   AND   ELEMEN- 
TARY CLASSICS. 

This  series  consists  of  the  following  WORKS,  viz : 

L— PRACTICAL  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

This  little  book  contains  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  leading  principles  01 
English  Grammar,  every  part  of  which  is  illustrated  by  a  great  varietj 
rf  exercises,  of  the  simplest  character,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  pupila 
at  HE  early  age. — New  edition,  revised  and  unproved. 


II.— THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

This  work  is  intended  as  a  school  Grammar,  for  the  use  of  elastics 
pursuing  this  branch  of  study  in  the  common  s«hools,  or  of  the  junior 
elasdes  in  academies.  It  embraces  all  that  is  important  on  the  subject, 
expressed  with  accuracy,  brevity,  and  simplicity,  and  is  peculiarly  adapt- 
•1  to  the  purposes  of  instruction  in  public  ochoola. 

HI.— -THE  ANALYTICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  ENGLISH  GRAMMxVR. 

This  work,  designed  for  the  more  advanced  classes  in  schools  and 
Academies,  is  prepared  on  a  more  extended  plan  than  the  preceding, 
though  not  essentially  different  from  it.  The  arrangement  (except  iii 
syntax),  the  definitions  and  rules,  are  the  same,  but  with  much  greater 
fulness  in  the  illustrations  and  exercises,  intended  to  lead  the  student  into 
a  thorough  and  critical  acquaintance  with  the  structure  and  use  of  the 
English  Language. 

IV.— EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS  AND  PAUSING. 

This  little  work  consists  of  selections  in  prose  and  poetry  from  stand 
ard  writers,  so  arranged  as  to  furnish  a  convenient  and  progressive  course 
of  Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing,  in  every  variety  of  style,  with  such 
occasional  references  to  the  grammars  as  are  deemed  necessary  to  explain 
peculiar  or  difficult  constructions.  To  this  is  prefixed  directions  for  the 
analysis  of  sentences  and  models  both  of  analysis  and  parsing. 

V.— THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

This  work  is  upon  the  foundation  of  Adam's  Latin  Grammar,  so  long 
Mid  favorably  known  as  a  text-book,  and  combines  with  all  that  is  excel- 
lent in  that  work  many  important  corrections  and  improvements  suggest- 
ed by  subsequent  writers,  or  the  results  of  the  author's  own  reflection  an«  i 
Dbservation,  during  many  years,  as  a  classical  teacher. 

VL-JACOBS'  LATIN  READER. 

This  work  forms  a  sequel  to  the  Grammar,  and  an  introduction  to  the 
itudy  of  Latin  classic  authors.  It  begins  with  a  series  of  simple  and 
plain  sentences  mostly  selected  from  classic  writers,  to  exemplify  ami 
llustrate  the  leading  constructions  of  the  language,  followed  by  Reading 
Lessons,  of  pure  and  simple  Latin,  chiefly  narrative,  by  which  the  pupil, 
while  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  construction  of  the  language,  is  nlso 
made  acquainted  with  many  of  the  most  prominent  characters  and  mytho- 
logical fables  of  antiquity,  as  well  as  with  the  leading  events  of  Roman 
history.  Throughout  the  work,  references  are  constantly  made,  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  to  the  Grammar  and  Introduction,  when  necessary  to 
explain  the  construction  or  assist  the  pupil  in  his  preparations. 


VH— FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GREEK 

Aw  work  is  ^tended  chiefly  for  those  who  begin  the  study  of  Greeli 
*t  .my  «ariy  a^e ;  and  for  this  reason  contains  only  the  outlines  of  Gram- 
mar, expressed  Li  as  clear  and  simple  a  manner  as  possible.  It  is  com- 
plete  in  itself  being  a  Grammar,  Exercises,  Reading  Book,  and  Lexicon, 
»11  in  one ;  so  that  the  pupil,  while  studying  this,  needs  no  other  book 
on  the  subject.  The  knowledge  acquired  by  the  study  of  this  work  will 
be  an  important  preparation  to  the  young  student  for  commencing  the 
atudy  of  Greek  Grammar -with  ease  and  advantage. 

VIII.— THE  PRINCIPLES  OfcGREEK  GRAMMAR, 

This  work  is  intended  to  be  a  comprehensive  manual  of  Greek  Gram- 
mar, adapted  to  the  use  of  the  younger,  as  well  as  of  the  more  advanced 
studente,  in  schools  and  colleges.  Both  in  Etymology  and  Syntax,  the 
leading  principles  of  Greek  Grammar  are  exhibited  in  definitions  and 
rules,  as  few  and  as  brief  as  possible,  in  order  to  be  easily  committed  to 
•nemory,  and  so  comprehensive  as  to  be  of  general  and  easy  application 
This  work  is  now  more  extensively  used  than  any  other  of  the  kind  in 
the  country. 

IX.— GREEK  READER. 

This  work,  like  the  Latin  Reader,  is  properly  a  sequel  to  the  Greek 
Grammar,  and  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  classic  authors. 
It  seeks  to  accomplish  its  object  in  the  same  way  as  the  Latin  Reader 
(See  above,  No.  VI.)  With  these  are  connected 

SPENCER'S  LATIN  LESSONS,  with  exercises  in  pacing,  introduc- 
tory to  Bullions'  Latin  Grammar. 

In  this  series  of  books, .  the  three  Grammars,  English,  Latin,  and 
Greek,  are  all  on  the  same  plan.  The  general  arrangement,  definitions, 
rules,  etc.,  are  the  same,  and  expressed  in  the  same  language,  as  nearly  aa 
the  nature  of  the  case  would  admit.  To  those  who  study  Latin  and 
Greek,  much  time  and  labor,  it  is  believed,  will  be  saved  by  this  method, 
both  to  teacher  and  pupil ;  the  analogy  and  peculiarities  of  the  different 
languages  being  kept  in  view,  will  show  what  is  common  to  all,  or  pecu- 
liar to  each ;  the  confusion  and  difficulty  unnecessarily  occasioned  by  the 
use  of  elementary  works,  differing  widely  from  each  other  in  language 
and  structure,  will  be  avoided ;  and  the  progress  of  the  student  rendered 
much  more  rapid,  easy,  and  satisfactory. 

No  series  of  Grammars  having  this  object  in  view,  has  heretofore  been 
prepared,  and  the  advantages  which  they  offer  cannot  be  obtained  in  an 
equal  degree  by  the  study  of  any  other  Grammars  now  in  use.  They 
form  a  complete  course  of  elementary  books,  in  which  the  substance  oi 
the  latest,  and  best  Grammars  in  each  language  has  been  compressed  into 
a  volume  of  convenient  size,  beautifully  printed  on  superior  paper,  neatly 
and  strongly  bound,  and  are  put  at  the  lowest  prices  at  whicn  they  cao 
be  afforded 


The  elementary  works,  intended  to  feUcrflrthe  Grammars,  namely,  the 
Latin  Reader,  and  the  Greek  Reader,  aie  also  on  the  SAME  PLAN — . 
pared  with  special  references  to  these  works,  and  contain  a  co1- 
elementary  instruction  so  unique  and  simple,  as  to  furnish  great  f 
to  the  student  in  these  languages. 


BULLIONS'  SERIES  OF  LATIN  CLASSICS. 

This  scries  contains  the  following  works,  to  which  others,  in  course  of 
preparation,  will  soon  be  added,  viz : 

I.— CAESAR'S  COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  GALLIC  WAR, 

In  this  work,  the  plan  of  the  Latin  Reader  is  carried  on  throughout. 
The  same  introduction  on  the  Latin  idioms  is  prefixed  for  convenience  of 
reference,  and  the  same  mode  of  reference  to  the  grammar  and  introduc- 
tion is  continued.  The  Notes  are  neither  too  meagre  nor  too  voluminous ; 
they  -re  intended  not  to  do  the  work  of  the*  student  for  him,  but  to 
dired  and  assist  him  in  doing  it  himsel£  It  is  embellished  with  a  beauti- 
ful r-»p  of  Gaul,  and  several  wood-cuts  representing  the  engines  of  war 
oae  i  by  the  Romans. 

II— CICERO'S  SELECT  ORATIONS, 

With  notes,  critical  and  explanatory;  adapted  to  Bullions*  Latin 
orrammar,  and  also  to  the  Grammar  of  Andrews  and  Stoddard.  This 
/selection  contains  the  four  orations  against  Catiline. — The  oration  for  the 
Poet  Archias, — for  Marcellus, — for  Q.  Ligarius, — for  king  Deiotarus, — for 
the  Manilian  law, — and  for  Milo.  The  notes  are  more  extended  than 
those  in  Caesar's  Commentaries,  especially  in  historical  and  archa.ological 
notices,  necessary  to  explain  the  allusions  to  persons  and  events  m  which 
the  orations  abound,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  indispensable  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  subject,  and  to  enable  the  student  to  keep  in  view 
the  train  of  argument  pursued. — In  other  respects,  the  proper  /iedi  >M 
between  too  much,  and  too  little  assistance  has  been  studied,  and  constant 
reference  made  to  the  Grammar,  for  the  explanation  of  uncommon  en 
difficult  constructions. 


in.— SALLUST'S  CATILINE  AND  JUGURTHA, 
On  the  same  plan. 
Published  also  by  the  same — 

THE  WORKS  OF  VIRGIL,  with  copious  notes,  <fec,,  and  abo  A  iiu>Lt 
of  reference ;  by  Rev.  J.  G.  COOPED  A.  M. 


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c*fn     1/1    in 

SEP    14  19o^ 

A  fin      rm       *-. 

RPR    3    «4^ 

3Nov'48AP 

33"'ar54CB 

. 

APR  23  1954 

- 

2N«'62D* 

REC'D  LD 

OPT     1     y      '""L? 

\J\Jl    1  "    I 

LD  21-20m-5,'39  (9269s) 

Y w    r\r\ 
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